ed the sceptre from Wred, the Pictish king, and established supreme sway over the whole of that country, which, from them, was afterwards called Scotland.

The Scoto-Saxon era, a Mr. Chalmers calls it, is memorable rather for an insensible change, than for any sudden revolution. After the subversion of the kingdom of Strathcluyd, by the Saxons, that people had colonized and filled the whole south; and the Scottish kings, though of Celtic origin, having established themselves in this more fertile part of their territories, soon began to imbibe the spirit of its occupants. From this or other causes the whole lowlands of Scotland is in language and manners Teutonic, and the Gael, or Celts, were again confined within their mountain boundary.

An era of disputed succession arose out of the contending claims of Bruce and Baliol, after the death of Margaret of Norway. Edward I, availing himself of this dissension, succeeded in introducing himself under the character of an arbiter, and having established Baliol on the throne by an armed interference, sought to rule Scotland as a vassal kingdom. The result was a struggle, calamitous to Scotland, but which, however, placed in a conspicuous light the energy and heroism of the nation, and brought forward the names of Wallace and Bruce, ever afterwards the foremost in her annals. The result was glorious; the concentrated force of the English was finally defeated in a pitched battle at Bannockburn; they were compelled to renounce their ambitious pretentions, and allow the kingdom to be governed by its native princes.

Under the turbulent and unfortunate sway of the Stuarts, Scotland continued for several centuries without any prominent revolution, though with a continual tendency to internal commotion. This dynasty, from their connection with the French and English courts, had acquired the idea of more polished manners, and habits of greater subordination as due from the nobles. Such views were ill suited to the temper and power of a Douglas, and many other powerrul chieftains, through whose resistance the attempts of the monarchs were followed with disaster, and often with violent death. The introduction of the reformed religion especially, in open opposition to the court, which granted only a reluctant and precarious toleration, was unfavorable to the crown, and fatal to a princess whose beauty and misfortunes have rendered her an object of enthusiasm to the gay and chivalric part of the Scottish nation.

The union of the crown, by the accession of James VI, in 1603 to the English throne, produced a great change, in itself flattering to Scotland, whose race of princes now held sway over all the three kingdoms. The struggle between presbytery and prelacy gave rise to a conflict which still powerfully influences the temper and character of the Scots. The efforts of the presbyterians, acting under the bond of their League and Covenant, first enabled the English

parliament to rear its head, and had a great effect in turning the scale of contest against the crown. The Scots revolted, however,

at the excesses of the independents, and endeavored to rear again, on a covenanted basis, the fallen crown of the Stuarts. These brave but unsuccessful efforts were ill-requited by an embittered persecution against all the adherents of presbytery, till the Revolution finally fixed that system as the established religion of Scotland.

The union of the kingdoms, in 1707, placed Scotland in that political position which she has ever since maintained; and, by allaying internal contest, and opening a free trade with the sister kingdom, this union has produced results highly beneficial, although the devoted attachment to her mountain tribes to the exiled Stuarts repeatedly impelled them to attempt to replace that house on the throne; attempts which, at one critical moment, spread alarm into the heart of England.-H. Murray's Encyl. Geog.

GEOGRAPHICAL DESCRIPTION.

THE longest line that can be drawn in Scotland, is from its most southern point, the Mull of Galloway, in lat. 54° 38′ N. to Dunnet Head, the northern point in lat. 58° 40' 30" N., or about 285 miles. Its breadth is extremely various being from 160 to 24 miles. The whole coast is so much penetrated by arms of the sea, that only one spot can be found forty miles from the shore. The surface of the country is distinguised for variety, and, compared with England, it is, generally speaking, rugged and mountainous. It is supposed, that estimating the whole extent of the country, exclusive of lakes, at 19,000,000 acres, scarcely so many as 6,000,000 are arable-that is, less than one-third; whereas in England, the proportion of arable land to the entire extent of the country exceeds three-fourths. With the exception of a few tracts of rich alluvial land along the course of the great rivers, Scotland has no extensive tracts of level ground, the surface of the country being generally varied with hill and dale.

NATURAL DIVISIONS.-Scotland is naturally divided into Highlands and Lowlands. The former division comprehends, besides the Hebrides, the Orkney and Shetland islands, the counties of Argyle, Inverness, Nairn, Ross, Cromarty, Sutherland, and Caithness, with parts of Dumbarton, Stirling, Perth, Forfar, Kincardine, Aberdeen, Banff, and Moray or Elgin. The Higlands, again, are divided into two unequal portions, by the chain of lakes occupying the Glenmore-non-albin, or "Great glen of Caledonia," stretching north-east and south-west across the island, from Inverness to FortWilliam, now connected together, and forming the Caledonial Canal. The northern division of the Highlands is decidedly the more barren and unproductive of the two, though the other division contains the highest mountains. In the eastern parts of Ross and Cromarty there are level tracts of considerable fertility. The Lowland division of the kingdom, though comparatively flat, comprises also a great deal of mountainous country.

MOUNTAINS. Of the Highland mountains, the most celebrated is the chain of the Grampians. It commences in Argyleshire, and terminates between Stonehaven and the mouth of the Dee on the eastern coast. The most elevated part of this range lies at the head of the Dee. Ben Macdui, the highest mountain in Scotland, rises to the height of 4,418 feet, and the adjoining mountains of Cairngorm, Carintoul, and Ben Avon, are respectively 4,050, 4,256, and 3,967 feet high. Ben Nevis, till recently reputed the highest of the British mountains, lies immediately to the east of FortWilliam, being separated from the Grampians by the moor of Rannoch; it rises 4,416 feet above the level of the sea, and its circumference at the base is supposed to exceed twenty-four miles.

The principal rivers of Scotland are, the Tweed, the Forth, the Tay, the Spey, and the Clyde. The Tweed rises in Tweedsmuir, about six miles from Moffat. It runs first north-east to Peebles, then east, with a little inclination to the south, to Melrose;

it next passes Kelso and Coldstream, and pursuing a north-easterly direction, falls into the sea at Berwick. During the latter part of its course, the Tweed forms the boundary between England and Scotland. The descent from its source to Peebles is 1,000 feet, and thence to Berwick, about 500 feet more. Including windings, its length is reckoned at rather more than 100 miles. The salmon fisheries at Berwick are very productive. The Forth rises on the east side of Ben Lomond, and runs in an easterly direction, with many windings, till it unites with the Firth or Forth at Kincardine. The Tay conveys to the sea a greater quantity of water than any other river in Britain. It has its source in the western extremity of Perthshire, in the district of Bredalbane, on the frontiers of Lorn in Argyleshire. At first it receives the name of the Fillan. The Tay is celebrated for its salmon fisheries, the value of which is between £10,000 and £11,000 per annum. The river is navigable for vessels of 400 tons burthen, as far as Perth, thirty-two miles from the German ocean. The Spey is the most rapid of the Scottish rivers, and, next to the Tay, discharges the greatest quantity of water. It has its source in Loch Spey, within about six miles of the head of Loch Lochy. It runs in a north-easterly direction. From its source to its mouth, the distance is about seventy-five miles. Owing to the origin and course of its tributary waters, the Spey is very liable to sudden and destructive inundations. It flows through the best wooded part of the Highlands, and affords a water-carriage for the produce of the extensive woods of Glenmore and Strathspey, large quantities of which are floated down to the seaport of Garmouth. The Clyde is, in a commercial point of view, the most important river of Scotland. It has its origin in the highest part of the southern mountain land. Following its windings, the course of the Clyde, from its source to Dumbarton, is about seventy-three miles. At high water the Clyde is navigable for the largest class of merchant vessels as far as Glasgow, and large sums of money have been expended, especially of late, in improving and deepening the channel. The chief lakes of Scotland are, Loch Lomond, lying between Dumbartonshire and Stirlingshire; Loch Ness, in Inverness-shire; Loch Maree, in Ross-shire; Loch Awe, in Argylshire: Lochs Tay, Rannoch, and Erich, in Perthshire, &c.

The minerals of Scotland are numerous and valuable. The great coal-field of Scotland extends, with little interruption, from the eastern to the western coast. The most valuable part of this field is situated on the north and south sides of the Forth, about the average breadth of ten or twelve miles on each side, and on the north and south sides of the Clyde, ranging through Renfrewshire, part of Lanarkshire, and the north of Ayrshire. Detached coal-fields have also been found in various other parts of Scotland. Lime is very generally diffused throughout the country. Iron abounds in many parts, particularly in the coal-field. Lead mines are wrought to a great extent at Leadhills and Wanlockhead, in Dumfries-shire. There are extensive slatequarries in Aberdeenshire, Argylshire, Perthshire, and Peebles-shire; marble is found in Argylshire, Sutherland and the Hebrides; sandstone abounds generally throughout the country; and granite, and other primitive rocks, within the limits of the Grampians.

The climate of Scotland is extremely variable. Owing to its insular situation, however, neither the cold in winter nor the heat in summer, is so intense as in similar latitudes on the Continent. The annual average temperature may be estimated at from 44 to 47 of Fahrenheit. The quantity of rain which falls on the east coast of Scotland varies from 22 to 26 inches, while on the west coast, and in the Hebrides, it ranges from 35 to 46 inches. The average number of days in which either rain or snow falls in parts situated on the west coast, is about 200; on the east coast, about 145. The winds are more variable than in England, and more violent, especially about the equinoxes. Westerly winds generally prevail, especially during autumn and the early part of winter, but north-east winds are prevalent and severe during spring and the early part of summer.

The soils of the various districts of Scotland are exceedingly diversified. The general average is inferior to that of England, although many of the valleys are highly productive. In Berwickshire, the Lothians, Clydesdale, Fifeshire, the Carses of StirÎing, Falkirk, and more particularly in the Carse of Gowrie, Strathearn, Strathmore, and Moray, there are tracts of land not inferior to any in the empire. The inferiority of the climate and soil, as compared with England, is exhibited by contrasting the phenomena of vegetation in the two countries. Notwithstanding the very advanced state of agriculture, in many districts of Scotland, the crops are not reaped with the same certainty as in England, nor do the ordinary kinds of grain arrive at the same perfection. Thus, although Scotch and English barley may be of the same weight, the

former does not bring so high a price; it contains less saccharine matter, and does not yield so large a quantity of malt. Various fruits, also, which ripen in the one country, seldom arrive at maturity in the other, and never reach the same perfection. The herring fishery is carried on to a considerable extent on the east coast of Scotland, and there are most productive and valuable fisheries of ling and cod in the neighborhood of the Shetland and Orkney islands.

The manufactures of Scotland, especially those of linen and cotton, are extensive and flourishing. The making of steam-engines, and every other description of machinery, as also the building of steam-boats, both of wood and iron, is carried on to a great extent, especially on the Clyde; and vast quantities of cast-iron goods are produced at Carron, Shotts, and other works. The commerce of Scotland has increased with astonishing rapidity, especially within a comparatively recent period, and a vast trade is now carried on, particularly with America and the West Indies.

Under the Reform Act of 1832, Scotland returns fifty-three members to the Imperial Parliament. The Scottish Peers choose sixteen of their number to represent them in the House of Lords. These representative Peers, like the Commoners, hold their seats for only one Parliament.

Scotland is divided into 1,023 parishes, (including parishes quoad sacra,) each of which is provided with one minister, or, in a few instances in towns, with two. The number of parishes, quoad sacra, has, however, been increased of late. The stipends of the endowed clergy, with the glebe and manse, probably average from £260 to £300 a-year. The government of the church is vested in kirk-sessions, presbyteries, synods, and the General Assembly. The number of churches belonging to Dissenters, of all denominations, amounts to 1,500, besides a considerable number of missionary stations. Of this number 730 belong to the Free Church of Scotland, which separated from the Establishment in 1843. The incomes of the Dissenting clergy are wholly derived from their congregations; they average probably, from £120 to £130 a-year, including a house and garden. In many cases, however, the income is considerably larger.

The population of Scotland at the time of the Union, in 1707, is supposed not to have exceeded 1,050,000. In 1755, it amounted to 1,265,380; in 1831, it had increased to 2,365,114; in 1841, 2,628,957; and in 1851 it was 2,870,784. The average population per square mile is 88.5. The population of Scotland has increased less rapidly than that of England, and much less so than that of Ireland; and, in consequence, the Scotch have advanced much more rapidly than the English or Irish, in wealth, and in the command of the necessaries and conveniencies of life. Their progress in this respect has indeed been quite astonishing. The habits, diet, dress, and other accommodations of the people, have been signally improved. It is not too much to affirm, that the peasantry of the present day are better lodged, better clothed, and better fed, than the middle classes of land-owners a century ago.-Ext. from Black's Tourist.

BERWICK-ON-TWEED.

BERWICK is situated upon a gentle declivity close by the German Ocean, on the North or Scottish side of the Tweed. It is surrounded by walls which only of late ceased to be regularly fortified. It is fifty-eight miles south-east from Edinburgh, and three hundred and seventy-two north-west of London. Population, 15,094. It is governed by a Mayor, Recorder and Justices, and sends two members to Parliament. The trade of the port is considerable. Berwick has been the scene of many sanguinary conflicts during the Border wars between the Scots and English. Both nations considering it a fortress of great importance, the town and neighborhood were a constant scene of bloodshed. After repeated sieges, it was in 1502, ceded to England; and by a treaty

between Edward VI, and Mary Queen of Scotland, it was declared to be a free town, independent of both states. On the death of Elizabeth in 1603, James the VI, of Scotland, was proclaimed at Berwick, King of England, France and Ireland. James in return confirmed their ancient charters, and added new privileges. Its castle, so celebrated in early history, is now a shapeless ruin.

[Part of Berwick is seen on the left, beyond which is seen the German Ocean in the distance. The viaduct appears in front, the bridge connecting England and Scotland beyond.]

The viaduct seen in the view is considered the most stupendous work of the kind in Great Britain. The foundation stone was laid in 1847, and in August, 1850, it was formerly opened by Queen Victoria, when on her way to Scotland.

The constructure consists of twenty-eight semicircular arches, sixtyone feet six inches span each, springing from lofty piers eight feet six inches broad at the narrowest point. The abutment at the north end of the viaduct is built on the steep bank, on the top of which the old castle of Berwick once stood; the south abutment is joined by the railway embankment, forty feet high. Besides these main abutments, the bridge is divided into two series of arches by a minor abutment, standing near the edge of the river; this enabled the company to finish all the land arches and get the traffic over them without waiting for the completion of the more difficult and uncertain river operations. The total length of the viaduct, 2,170 feet; and the greatest height from the bed of the river, 125 feet. The whole bridge is built of stone, with the exception of the inner part of the arches, which is built with bricks laid in cement. There is in this structure upwards of 1,000,000 cubic feet of masonry; and nearly 2,500,000 of bricks have been placed in the arches. One hundred thousand feet of timbers was used in the foundations, which were