cerning the Intellectual Powers, and The Philosophy of the Moral Feelings. These two works possess great merit, and have been quite extensively used as school text-books. They were edited and adapted to the use of schools in this country by Jacob Abbott.

ABINGDON COLLEGE, at Abingdon, Ill., under the control of the Disciples of Christ, was founded in April, 1853. The number of students in the institution in 1875 was about 180. It has an endowment of $20,000. The college building is a handsome edifice well supplied with modern furniture and appliances. There are about 1000 volumes in the library, besides which the institution has a museum and laboratory. The names of its successive presidents are Patrick Murphy, J. W. Butler, and Oval Pirkey. The annual tuition fee is from $30 to $39.

advantage, in the employment of their children, to the interests of the latter, in enjoying the benefits of school instruction.

"Absenteeism" is also technically applied to a total neglect of school attendance by a part of the school population of any place. This is exhibited by a comparison of the average attendance of pupils with the census of children of school age. (See ATTENDANCE.)

ABSTRACT AND CONCRETE. These terms have a very important application in many departments of practical education. Abstract has reference to general ideas, or the ideas of qualities considered apart from the things to which they belong; concrete, to those which are only conceived as belonging to particular objects or substances. Thus, if we speak of a man, a horse, a tree, etc., we use abstract or general ideas; for we are not thinking of any particular object of the class, but only of the assemblage of qualities or characteristics that especially belong to all the members of the class. But when we mention such names as Cicero, Washington, John Smith, etc., we have in our mind a conception of the characteristics that served to distinguish those persons from all other men. Thus, the expression fire pounds represents a concrete idea; the word fire, an abstract one.

The immature minds of young children employ to a great extent concrete ideas, and hence the instruction addressed especially to them should deal principally with these. As the mind advances, it becomes more and more occupied with abstract conceptions, which constitute the material for all the higher forms of thought and ratiocination.

ACADEMY (Gr. 'Ακαδημια or 'Ακαδήμεια) was originally the name of a pleasure ground near Athens, and was said to be so called after Academus, a local hero at the time of the Trojan war. Its shady walks became a favorite resort for Plato: and, as he was accustomed to lecture here to his pupils and friends, the school of philosophers which was founded by him was called the Academic School, or merely the Academy. In the history of ancient philosophy, three different academies are distinguished, the Old Academy, formed by the immediate followers of

ABSENTEEISM is opposed to regularity in the attendance of pupils belonging to a school; that is, the number of school sessions from which a pupil was absent, as compared with the number at which he was present, during any particular period, gives the absenteeism of the pupil for that period. The average daily attendance of pupils divided by the average daily enrollment the "average number belonging-shows the percentage of attendance; and this subtracted from 100 gives, of course, the percentage of absentee-· ism. Within certain limits, this is a criterion of efficiency of management and instruction. Class teachers who interest their pupils necessarily secure a more regular attendance than those who fail in this respect; and principals of schools who keep a careful watch over all the pupils belonging to their schools, strictly and uniformly enforcing wholesome rules of discipline, and carefully notifying parents of the absence of their children, inquiring into the cause of the same, and admonishing both parents and pupils of the need of strict regularity, will, of course, succeed best in this regard. Where the basis for computing the degree of absenteeism is the average enrollment, and where regularity of attendance is made a test of efficient management, teachers will be more careful to keep the number of pupils on the rolls as little as possible above the average attendance. Hence, to render this test reliable, a uniform rule should be follow-Plato, the Middle Academy, founded, about 244, ed in the discharging of pupils for non-attendance. Such a rule has been adopted in many cities of the Union, any pupil's name being invariably dropped from the roll after a certain number of days of absence, however caused. This is based on the principle that irregularity of attendance-being at school one day, one week, or one month, and absent the next is not only of no profit to the pupil concerned, but a positive injury to the other pupils, and is a serious hindrance and embarrassment to the teacher in the management of the school. To some extent, absenteeism thus computed may indicate also the prevailing tone of the community in regard to education the degree of appreciation of the benefits of education generally felt by the people, as inducing parents to sacrifice their own personal

by Arcesilaus, and the New Academy, whose founder was Carneades, about 160 B. C. Sometimes the philosophical schools founded by Philo and Antiochus are called respectively the Fourth and the Fifth Academy. Among the Romans, Cicero, who regarded himself as an adherent of the Academic philosophy, gave the name of Academy to the gymnasium at his villa near Tusculum, as well as to one of his villas in Campania, where he wrote his Academica Quæstiones. During the middle ages. the term was but little used for learned institutions; but, after the revival of classical studies in the 15th century, it again became frequent. In a wider sense, it was sometimes applied to higher institutions of learning in general. Gradually, however, its use was, in most countries, restricted to special schools, as

ACADEMY

academies of mining, of commerce, of forestry, of fine arts, and, especially, of music. In England and the United States, the national high schools for the education of military and naval officers are called academies. Thus, England has the Naval Academy at Portsmouth, and the Royal Military Academy at Woolwich; and the United States, the Military Academy at West Point, and the Naval Academy at Annapolis. In the United States, the name has also been assumed by a large number of secondary schools, which are designed to prepare their pupils for colleges, or to impart a general knowledge of the common and higher branches of education. As they are, in nearly all cases, private institutions, independent of any control by state boards, their courses of instruction widely differ. ranging from the lowest primary class to the highest classes of grammar and high schools. They are usually both boarding and day schools.

and their influence on other educational institutions has been considerable. The Académie française is the highest authority upon every thing relating to the niceties of the French language, to grammar, and the publication of the French classics. The Académie des inscriptions et belles lettres embraces among the objects of its attention comparative philology. Like the French Institute, the academies in the capitals of Spain, Portugal, Sweden, Russia, and other countries, have gradually become great national centers for the promotion of science and art; but no such centralization has been effected in Italy, Germany, England, or the United States. In England, the learned corporations corresponding to the continental academies of sciences have generally the name society or association. England proper has, however, a royal academy of arts (founded in 1765, re-organized in 1768) and a royal academy of music (established in 1822); The name academy is also employed to des- and in Edinburgh, there is a royal academy of ignate associations of learned men for the ad- yachting (founded in 1754). In Ireland, the name vancement of science and art. Some of these academy, according to its continental use, has associations are of an entirely private character, been adopted for the Royal Academy of Sciences others have been founded by the state. The at Dublin (founded in 1782). In the United first academy of this kind was the Museum of States of America there are also a number of Alexandria, in Egypt, which was founded by learned societies to which the name academy, Ptolemy Soter. After its model, the Jews, to- in the sense used on the continent of Europe, ward the close of the first century of the Christian has been applied. The following societies are era, began to establish academies for the develop called academies: The American Academy of ment of Talmudic science. Later, the Arabian Arts and Sciences, at Boston (founded in 1780), caliphs established academies at their places of the Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences residence, to show their interest in the promotion (founded in 1799), the Academy of Natural of science. Efforts to establish Christian acad- Science in Philadelphia (founded in 1818), the emies of this kind were made by Gregory the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts (established Great and Charlemagne, but both failed. It was in 1807), the National Academy of Design, at not until the middle of the fifteenth century, that New York (founded in 1828); the Medical Acadassociations of this kind were formed in Italy for emy of New York. The National Academy of the purpose of fostering the free development of Sciences was incorporated by Congress, March science and art, in opposition to the rigid conser- 3d, 1863. In New York, Philadelphia, Brookvatism of the monastic and ecclesiastical schools. lyn, Chicago, and other large cities, the princiThey gave special attention to the cultivation of pal opera house is called the Academy of Music. the Italian language and literature. It was es- ACCOMPLISHMENTS. This term, as pecially the Accademia della Crusca, founded at contrasted with culture, refers to those educaFlorence by the poet Grazzini, to which the tional acquirements which fit a person for certain Italian language is indebted for its purification special activities, while culture has reference to and development. From Italy, these institutions the general improvement of the character or spread to the other countries of Europe; and, as mental faculties. Hence the expression "external they became the centers of literary activity, they accomplishments," or "ornamental accomplishexercised every-where a prominent influence ments," such as skill in foreign languages, music, upon the intellectual progress of the several drawing, painting, dancing, etc. Involved in this countries, and, especially, upon the improvement application of the term, is the idea of display, or and regulation of the native tongue. Prominent the ability to please, or the power to awaken adamong these academies, was the Académie fran- miration in the beholder. Thus in the Spectator çaise, instituted, in 1635, by Cardinal Riche- we find the expression "the visible graces of lieu. In 1795, it was united with three other speech and the dumb eloquence of motion," as French academies into the Institut national, indicating the accomplishments of a pleasing althe name of which was changed by Louis XVI. dress and a graceful carriage. into Institut de France. The Institute con- Accomplishments are either purely intellectsisted then of four academies: (1) l'Académie ual, as that of language, or partly or wholly française, (2) l'Académie des inscriptions et artistic, such as music, drawing, dancing, etc. In belles lettres, (3) l'Académie des sciences, (4) the education of boys, fencing and boxing were l'Académie des beaux arts. A fifth academy, formerly considered as indispensable accomplishl'Académie des sciences morales et politiques, ments; but of these, at the present time, rowing was added in 1832. These academies are among seems to take precedence, as contributing to a the most important of the kind in the world, healthy development of the physical system.

ACQUISITION. The acquisition of knowledge must be, to a certain extent, the scope of every process of teaching. Sometimes it is the primary object; but, in the earlier stages of education, it is generally secondary, the educative value of the process taking precedence of the practical importance of the knowledge communicated. The acquisition of new ideas must always, more or less, improve the mind by affording additional material for the exercise of its various faculties; but, in education, what particular faculties are concerned in the study of any subject or branch of knowledge, is a matter of paramount importance, and therefore should never be lost sight of by the teacher. Where this is disregarded, instruction is apt to degenerate into mere rote-teaching; and the teacher will often rest satisfied when his pupil can repeat the formulæ of knowledge, without evincing the acquisition of new ideas, on which alone the improvement of the mind depends.

In many classes of schools, particularly in circumstances and in the time proposed, be acprivate seminaries, the acquisition of certain orna-complished so as to give the pupils who are to mental accomplishments constitutes the chief end pursue it, a thorough knowledge of the subject. of education. Were these accomplishments based as well as the ability to apply it to some pracon a solid culture of the intellectual and moral tical purpose. The peculiar talent, or bent of nature, they would be very proper and desirable; mind, of children should be regarded, in the atbut being merely showy and superficial, they tempt to bestow upon them ornamental acconstitute a perversion of the true end of edu- complishments, such as music and drawing, excation. Thus Hannah More remarks: "In train- cept such elementary portions of these arts as are ing our daughters, should we not carefully culti- within the capacity of all, and which constitute, vate intellect, implant religion, and cherish mod- not indeed special accomplishments, but a part esty? Then, whatever is engaging in manners of that general culture which the most elementwould be the natural result of whatever is just ary education should bestow. (See CULTURE.) in sentiment and correct in principle. Softness would grow out of humility, and external delicacy would spring from purity of heart." The folly and wrong of giving this exclusive attention to mere accomplishments have very frequently been a subject of satirical invective. Says Sydney Smith: "A woman of accomplishments may entertain those who have the pleasure of knowing her for half an hour with great brilliancy; but a mind full of ideas, and with that elastic spring which the love of knowledge only can convey, is a perpetual source of exhilaration and amusement to all that come within its reach. Therefore, instead of hanging the understanding of a woman upon walls, or hearing it vibrate upon strings, instead of seeing it in clouds, or hearing it in the wind, we would make it the first spring and ornament of society, by enriching it with attainments, upon which alone such power depends." Goldsmith also inveighed severely against this practice in his time. "Another passion," he says, "which the present age is apt to run into is, to make children learn all things, the languages, the sciences, music, the exercises, and painting. Thus the child soon becomes a talker in all, but a master in none. He thus acquires a superficial fondness for everything, and only shows his ignorance, when he attempts to exhibit his skill." The tendency of the present time, in what is called fashionable education, is equally subject to the same unfavorable criticism. Accomplishments, in the first stages of education, are to be regarded as secondary to the solid improvement of the mind. Those rudimentary attainments which constitute the basis of all school education, and are indispensable to any further progress, namely, reading, spelling, writing, and arithmetic, must of course be made: to which should be added the ability to use one's own language, in speaking and writing, with tolerable ease and propriety. A common-school education should give great prominence to these, as not only constituting the acquirements most generally needed for success in life, but as placing in the hands of the pupils the keys to future progress in learning.

Accomplishment, being derived from the French accomplir, to finish or complete, may be contrasted with smattering, a mere superficial acquirement of some of the prominent or rudimental parts of any subject. No educational scheme should admit of the study of any branch of knowledge which cannot, under the given

ACROAMATIC METHOD (Gr. ἀκροαμαTóc, to be heard, designed for hearing only), a name originally applied to the esoteric teachings of Aristotle and other Greek philosophers, to designate such as were confined to their immediate hearers, and not committed to writing. Later, the term has been applied to a system of instruction in which the teacher speaks and the pupil only listens. A method of this kind, of course, presupposes scholars of a certain maturity of age and of considerable progress in intellectual culture. It forms the basis of the lecture system. (See LECTURE.)

ADAM, Alexander, LL. D., was born in Scotland, in 1741, and died in 1809. He attained a high distinction as a teacher while Rector of the High School at Edinburgh (1768–1808). He was also the author of several educational text-books, among which his Roman Antiquities (1791) has been very extensively used in this country and in Great Britain.

ADAMS, John, LL. D., was born in Canterbury, Ct., in 1772, and died in Jacksonville, Ill., in 1863. He was noted both as a teacher and a philanthropist. After graduating at Yale College, in 1795, he taught the academy in his native town, and subsequently other schools, till, in 1810, he became principal of Phillips Academy, Andover, Mass., in which position he continued for twenty-three years. In 1833, he removed to Illinois, and was very active in effecting improvements in the school system of that

ADRIAN COLLEGE

ESTHETIC CULTURE

5

State. His labors in connection with various and girls to the 16th or 18th year of age. Sev benevolent institutions in both States, were nu-eral states made attendance at these schools obmerous and important. Through his efforts, a large number of Sunday-schools were established in his adopted State. Many essays and other publications on education attest the intelligence and ability with which he devoted himself to the training of the young.

ADRIAN COLLEGE, at Adrian, Mich., was founded in 1859, by the Methodists. The number of students is about 200, males and females, about one fourth of whom belong to the collegiate department. It has a classical and a scientific course of instruction, a school of theology, a school of music, and a normal class. Its corps of instructors numbers twelve, and it has one endowed professorship. The number of volumes in its library is about 1000; its endowment is $100,000. Rev. G. B McElroy, D. D., is the president of the Institution (1876). The tuition fee is very small.

children receive during the day; and some of the larger cities afford in these evening high schools instruction in the studies of a higher grade. (See EVENING SCHOOLS.)

ligatory for all boys and girls who had left the elementary school and not entered any higher school. Special attention has been given to schools of this class in Austria, where the government has established "reviewing schools". (Wiederholungsschulen.). (See AUSTRIA.) As the ordinary Sunday or reviewing school was found to be insufficient, especially for young me chanics, special classes or schools were organized in which particularly instruction in drawing was given. The attendance at these schools is always voluntary; in most of them the scholars have to pay moderate fees; instruction is generally given on Sunday mornings, and, in most schools, is confined to writing, arithmetic, and drawing. In some of the German states, espe cially in Würtemberg, an evening school on week-days has been added to the Sunday-school; and thus a great impulse has been given for the ADULTS, Schools for. The proper time further development of industrial schools for to obtain instruction is during the periods of adults. (See INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS.) The Schools boyhood or girlhood, and youth. (See AGE IN for Adults established in other European countries EDUCATION.) It is in the interest of states as are mostly evening industrial schools. In the well as of families and individuals, that, as much United States, evening schools have been very exas possible, every child, not prevented by physical tensively introduced, to give to all adults an opdisabilities, should have its share in the instruc-portunity of obtaining the same education as tion provided by public legislation and private effort. The majority of states have even deemed it a duty to make education compulsory, in order to render it universal. (See COMPULSORY EDUCATION.) It is also the general tendency of educational legislation to extend the legal school to the utmost, in order to make the education of the school population as thorough as possible. (See SCHOOL AGE.) Still, though boyhood and youth are the proper ages for instruction, the need of special schools for adults has always been deeply felt. Though modern legislation has succeeded in some countries in almost wholly extinguishing illiteracy (see ILLITERACY), the number of adults whose education; during the proper age, has either been entirely insufficient, or who find themselves on entering life, without the requisite amount of information specially needed in their several avocations, remains as great as ever, and is even likely to increase, as the standard of popular education becomes more elevated. Systematic reading, instruction by private teachers, and, more recently, popular lectures, are among the principal agencies for supplementing the deficiencies of school education. Efforts have, nowever, not been wanting in many states to establish schools for adults for the special purpose of giving to those who have left the public schools and entered into practical life, a suitable opportunity to supply the deficiency of their school education. Many German states began in the 18th century to establish Sunday-schools in which, besides religious education, a review of the instruction given in the elementary school was provided for. As the school age, in the German states, only extended to the 14th year, a Sunday-school w23 specially provided for boys

age

ADVENTISTS. This is the name of several organizations of American Christians, the distinctive doctrine of whom is the belief in the speedy second advent of Christ, and the end of the world. In 1875, there were four different organizations: (1) The Advent Christian Association; (2) The American Millennial Association (Evangelical Adventists): (3) The Life and Advent Union; (4) The Seventh Day Adventists. The churches of this denomination were formerly almost wholly independent, and had fewer church boards for common interests than most of the other religious denominations of the United States. The greatest advance in point of organization has been made by the Seventh Day Adventists. The subject of education and the founding of a denominational school was brought to the attention of the members of this denomination by Elder James White and wife, in the early part of 1872. The matter was referred to a General Committee, who, during the summer and autumn of 1873, solicited subscriptions to this enterprise, obtaining pledges for over $54,000. On the 16th of March, 1874. an association was formed, under the law of Michigan, "for the incorporation of institutions of learning;" and a school edifice, capable of accommodating between four and five hundred students, was finished in 1875. — See Annual Cyclopedia, 1875, art. Adventists; also Seventh Day Adventists; a brief sketch of their Origin, Progress, and Principles (Battle Creek, 1874).

ESTHETIC CULTURE. See ESTHETIC

CULTURE,

AFFECTATION, as opposed to what is real, genuine, and natural, is carefully to be guarded against in the education of the young. In certain peculiarities of character, there is a proneness to the formation of habits of affectation in manners and speech. This tendency, however, rarely shows itself at an early age. Children generally yield to their natural impulses, and do not assume or feign what they do not feel, or, to use a common expression, "put on airs." Their mode of training, however, may tend to this, particularly if they are forced to assume an unnatural mode of expression in phraseology or pronunciation, in the attempt to make them excessively precise in such matters. Some styles of reading and elocution may lead to this characteristic; and hence the importance of adopting methods that, in all respects correspond to the prevailing usage. Certainly, nothing can be more disgusting than the forced imitation of peculiar and unnatural models of conceived propriety of speech and manners, which we sometimes find to prevail among the pupils of certain schools, or the "mincing airs which are often assumed by those, both male and female, but particularly the latter, who affect to belong to the best society, and hence arrogate to themselves a superior degree of refinement. The standard of the educator should be, in every respect, that ease, grace. simplicity, and beauty that belong to what is natural; and every tendency to the contrary, in his pupils, should be promptly and sternly repressed. Locke says: "Plain and rough nature left to itself, is much better than an artificial ungracefulness, and such studied ways of being ill-fashioned. The want of an accomplishment, or some defect in our behavior, coming short of the utmost gracefulness, often scapes observation; but affectation in any part of our carriage, is lighting up a candle to our defects, and never fails to make us to be taken notice of, either as wanting sense or wanting sincerity."- See LOCKE, Thoughts concerning Education.

professor of zoology and geology in the Lawrence Scientific School, then just established. He commenced his duties in 1848, and settled permanently in the United States, where his greatest fame was achieved by his numerous labors as a naturalist and a scientific lecturer and teacher. The establishment of the Anderson School of Natural History on Penikese Island in 1873, was almost the last act of his life. The means for founding this school were furnished by Mr. John Anderson, a generous and public-spirited citizen of New York, who not only devoted for this object the island of Penikese, but the sum of $50,000, as a permanent endowment. Agassiz had long advocated the establishment of such a school for the special instruction of teachers in marine zoology; and during the summer of 1873, he devoted his time and energies to this institution, being present at every exercise and lecture, and the constant companion of the students. His chief publications were Recherches sur les Poissons Fossiles, 1833 — 1844; Etudes sur les glaciers, 1840; Systeme glaciaire, 1847, and Contributions to the Natural History of the United States. Though chiefly eminent as a naturalist, and particularly in the department of ichthyology, he was an accomplished linguist, being versed in six languages. He read Plato and Aristotle in the original, wrote several works in elegant Latin, and was a good Hebraist. French and German were to him vernacular tongues, and he could speak and write the English language with ease and correctness. He was a natural teacher, fond of giving instruction, patient and sympathetic, overflowing with an earnest love for his subject, and having a mind replete with stores of information. His voice, look, and manner at once gained the attention of his pupils: and the clearness of his explanations as well as the fluency of his delivery gave interest to every subject upon which he spoke. His skill in ready graphic delineations with chalk and blackboard was AGASSIZ, Louis John Rudolph. This astonishing, and greatly contributed to the eminent naturalist and teacher was born at effectiveness of his teaching. Few have ever Motiers, near Neufchatel, in Switzerland, May made such rich additions to the stores of science, 28., 1807, and died at Cambridge, Mass., Dec. 14., or have been more zealous in diffusing the bene1873. His ancestors were Huguenots, driven fits of knowledge among mankind. His exfrom France by the revocation of the edict of ample as a teacher has been of very great value, Nantes. His father was the pastor of a protest since his system was to teach from natural obant parish; his mother, the daughter of a phy- jects rather than from books,-to enable the sician. Under the latter he received his first pupil to acquire an experience of his own before education till the age of eleven, when he was presenting to his mind the results of the exsent to the gymnasium at Bienne, where he re-perience and observation of others. His own mained four years. His subsequent studies were assumed title. Louis Agassiz-Teacher," was pursued at the college of Lausanne, the medical the one of which he seemed to be most proud; school of Zurich, and the universities of Heidel- | and all teachers should cherish the example berg and Munich. At the latter place, he partic- which he set, as the true means of success. ularly distinguished himself for his attainments in natural history. At Paris. he made the acquaintance of Humboldt and Cuvier, both of whom held him in high esteem for his talents and scientific acquirements. In 1846, he came to the United States, being invited to deliver a course of lectures at the Lowell Institute, in Boston. The next year, he accepted the appointment of

AGE, in Education. The life of man has been variously divided into periods, or ages. Thus Pythagoras assumed four, Solon and Macrobius ten, different ages, while others have preferred a division into five, six, seven, or eight. With regard to the education of man, one great turning point stands forth so conspicuously, that teachers at all times have chosen it as a broad