In the reign of King John we begin to have many poems written in the language of our country. In literature, the First English (or Anglo-Saxon) was, for about four centuries, a language nearly as fixed as the English of the present day. Modification of this by the introduction of new elements, decay of inflexions, &c., produced an English of literature, changing in its form, and reflecting diverse characters of provincial speech that arose from diverse mixture in different places of tribes that had joined to form a nation. In spoken English those various provincial forms must always have existed, and to some extent they still exist. In the First English of literature, while this was written by a cultivated class, there seems to have been, as there is now, what may be roughly called a fixed standard of English for the educated. In the time of transition from First English to Modern English, French was for generations the court language, Latin was the common language of the educated, and those who wrote in the mother tongue did so for the delight and instruction of the multitude, each using the homely English of the neighbourhood in which and for which he The poems written in Transition English thus pleasantly reflect not only the more strongly marked features of difference, but often also delicate shades of variation in the dialect of different parts of England. There is a steady general development of the language, quick in towns, slow in the country, and there are differences of local colour to be explained only by reference to the history of the first peopling of each several part of England with here a predominance of Scandinavians, there a predominance of Frisians, and so forth. wrote. A long poem written near Bewdley, in Worcestershire, and completed about the year 1205, follows and expands the story of Geoffrey of Monmouth's Chronicle, with its legends of King Arthur as they had been already expanded in the "Brut" of Wace. This English poem is the "Brut" of Layamon, completed about fifty-eight years after the finishing of Geoffrey of Monmouth's History of British Kings. Layamon's "Brut is a poem in 32,250 lines, and therefore not one of the shorter poems with which this volume is concerned. But Layamon's poem represents the first revival of verse in the mother tongue, and it was followed by many pieces of all kinds. The "Ormulum"-named after its writer, Brother Orme, who was Layamon's contemporary -rhymed and interpreted with metrical homilies the Gospels in the church service throughout the year. This and the "Brut" of Layamon were poems written in the First English manner, with alliteration and without rhyme. English verse in the rhyming metres learnt from France began to abound in Henry III.'s reign. The rhyming eightsyllabled measure of the French romances was used by Nicholas of Guildford in a poem describing an argument between "The Owl and the Nightingale" as to their respective merits, and in a paraphrase of the Scripture narrative of "Genesis and Exodus," produced about the year 1250, in East Midland dialect. French romances, as of "King Horn" and of "King Alexander," were at the same time made English; and there were rhymed Homilies, Creeds, Paternosters, Joys of the Virgin. Also there was a Bestiary which followed an ancient fashion of the Church in turning qualities of animals (mostly imagined qualities) into religious allegory. Robert, a monk of the abbey of Gloucester, rhymed, at the end of the thirteenth century, a "Chronicle of English History" from the siege of Troy to the death of Henry III. in 1272. An English version of the "Lay of Havelok the Dane" was made about the year 1280. A version of the Psalms, known as the "Northumbrian Psalter," was made about the same time; and the south of England produced a collection of proverbs, each introduced by a rhyming stanza, known as the "Proverbs of Hendyng." In earlier time English proverbs had been fathered on King Alfred. Their new father is called in an opening stanza "Marcolve's son," but Hendyng seems to have been only a name given ta an imaginary proverb-maker. So the old French proverbs were fathered on "li Vilains,"-"Ce dit li Vilains," answering to the "Quoth Hendyng" of the English rhymes. Hendyng may have had Marcolph given to him for a father because in an old popular poem of the Middle Ages, "Salomo and Marcolph," Marcolph represents the homely wisdom of the people in communion with the wisdom of the wise. As for the name Hendyng itself, I believe that it suggests only the wisdom of age and experience, and is one of the vernacular words drawn from the Celtic part of our population, for Henddyn means in Welsh "an aged person." I translate a few of these sayings into modern English before giving their original form to represent the manner of the PROVERBS OF HENDYNG. [Wise man's words are well kept in; For he will no song begin Ere he have tuned his pipe. The fool's a fool, and that is seen; For he will speak words while they're green Sooner than they are ripe. "The fool's bolt is soon shot; " Quoth Hendyng.] Wis mon holt is wordes ynne; For he nul no gle bygynne Ere he have tempred is pype. Sot is sot, ant that is sene; For he wol speke wordes grene Er then hue buen rype. "Sottes bolt is sone shote;" Quoth Hendyng. [Never let thy foeman hear Of shame or pain thou hast to bear, Of thy woe or trouble. If he can he'll find a way, Every grief to double. "Tell thou never thy foe that thy foot acheth;" Quoth Hendyng.] Sot is still French for a fool or stupid person. It meant the same in First English. Zot still means a fool or stupid person also Tell thou never thy fo-mon Shome ne teone that the is on, Thi care ne thy wo: For he wol fonde, yef he may, Both by nyhtes ant by day, Of on to make two. "Tel thou never thy fo that thy fot aketh;" Quoth Hendyng. [Hast of bread and ale no lack, Put not all in thine own sack, But scatter some about. Art thou free with thine own meals, Go'st thou not without. Yef thou havest bred ant ale, Ne put thou nout al in thy male,2 Thou del it sum aboute. Be thou fre of thy meeles, Gest thou nout withoute. "Betere is appel y-geve3 then y-ete;" Quoth Hendyng. [Art thou rich, of much account, Let thy mood not rashly mount, And grow not over wild; But bear thee fairly every way, "When the cup is full, carry it even;" Yef thou art riche ant wel y-told, Ah ber the feyre in al thyng, Ant thou might habbe blessyng, Ant be meke ant mylde. "When the coppe is follest, thenne ber hire feyrest;" Quoth Hendyng. in Dutch. In modern English the word is applied only to one who makes himself stupid by drinking. 1 Teone. First English, "teona," reproach, injury, wrong, vexation, from "tynan," to incense or vex, allied to "tyndan," or tendan," to set on fire: whence our word tinder. There was the old English form, teen, for sorrow or vexation, used by Shakespeare in "Love's Labour's Lost" (Act iv. sc. 3), "Romeo and Juliet" (Act i. sc. 3), "The Tempest" (Act i. sc. 2), "Richard III." (Act iv. sc. 1.) Eighty odd years of sorrow have I seen, And each hour's joy wrecked with a week of teen." 2 Male. From malle, a word found in many languages, meaning bag, sack, or trunk, allied to the Greek μolyós, hide or skin. Her Majesty's mails are Her Majesty's cacks or bags containing the letters. A mail train is a train carrying such bɩgз. Y-geve. Y is a softened form of the prefix ge. The softened g, which sometimes lec me y or gh in later spelling, was often represented in Transition English by a letter not unlike a z, and old MSS. have often been printed with this letter turned into a z. The old word ge, written with the modified g that is now y, is thus metamorphosed into ze, so that we have ze, zoure, and other such words as never Englishman or Scotchman wrote. In printing old English in these volumes I represent the sign of the soft g by y where it has actually passed into y or else disappeared, by gh where it is now gh, and by g where the word is now written without change of the letter. Ah ber the fe re. Ah is First English "ac," but. The final e in feyre is adverbial. Another popular poem assigned to the latter part of the thirteenth century is a satire upon corruptions in the Church, that paints a Fool's Paradise for monks, wherein all the delights are sensual, and spiritual life passes for nothing. The Paradise of this satire, which spread through several countries, was entitled "the Land of Cockaigne "-that is to say, Kitchenland. From coquere, to cook, came the Latin coquina, Italian cucina, English kitchen, French cuisine; which yielded such names as the Italian Cuccagna, Spanish Cucaña, French Coquaine, to the land of animal delights painted by popular satire as the happy land of monks who had turned their backs upon the higher life to which they were devoted. An old German poet described it as "dat edele lant van Cockangen." In what spirit this popular satire was written none can doubt, when they find at the close how such a Paradise as it paints is to be earned only by seven years wading chin-deep in swinish filth. THE LAND OF COKAYGNE. Fur in see bi west Spaygne Is a land ihote6 Cokaygne. Is a country called Cockaigne. Ther nis lond under heven-riche7 There is no land under the kingdom of heaven Of wel, of godnis, hit iliche, Like it in weal and goodness; Thogh paradis be miris and bright, Cockaigne is of fairer sight. So our cokeney or cockney, which may mean literally or morally a servant of the kitchen, was a name given to men of the capital who were made effeminate by over-elaboration of the pleasures of the flesh. 6 Ihote. From First English, "hátan," to name, making its past tense "hatte," and past participle "geháten." "Hátan," meaning to command, made its past tense "hét" and past participle "haten." In ihote," from "geháten," the prefix has softened to y or i, the broad á weakened to o (a common change), and the final n has disappeared. The later form is hight," used in past tense, as in Chaucer's "Knight's Tale" "Of whiché two Arcita highte that on, And he that other highté Palamon;' or for participle, as in Spenser's "Mother Hubbard's Tale" Among the rest a good old woman was, This form-used in the present tense as well as in the past and parti ciple-may possibly have arisen from confusion out of "hét," the past tense of "hatan," to command, but was more probably taken from a Scandinavian form on the lips of the people in the north of England. The Scandinavian form, "heita," the Gothic "haitan," the old High German "heizan," and the modern German "heissen," all have the sound that was reproduced in hight. 7 leven-riche. First English, "hcofon-fe," the kingdom of heaven. Sharp ƒ between two vowels took the flat sounle, and afterwards, being sounded, v was written. 8 Miri. First English, mirig," the adjective, and the noun "myrth," mirth, are from the root of "mearo," tender, soft, delicate, and "mearh," marrow, the soft fat within bones. The first use of the adjective now spelt "merry is more in accord with the sense of a soothing enjoyment than with that of active laughter, now mora commonly associated with it. In the "Vision of Piers Plowman,” the dreamer was first lulled to repose with the music of a stream by which he sat on Malvern Hills-" it sweyued" (sounded) 80 merye." 1 What is ther in paradis What is there in Paradise Bot grasse and flure and grene ris?1 But grass and flowers and green twigs ? Though ther be ioi and grete dute,2 Though there be joy and great diversion, Ther nis mete bote frute; There is no food but fruit; 10 MEAT. From Arundel MS.-91, fol. 189. The met is trie, the drink is clere, FRUIT DIET. From Sloane MS.-2435, fol. 55. Ther nis halle, bure, no benche, Bot water, manis thurst to quenche. Nothing but water man's thirst to quench. Beth ther no man but two, There is no man except two, Hely and Enok also; Elijah and Enoch also; Elinglich may hi go Ailingly may they go Whar ther wonith men no mo In Cokaygne is met and drink In Cockaigne is meat and drink Withute care, how, and swink.7 Without care, trouble, and toil. 1 Ris. First English, "hris;" Scandinavian, "hrisla," twig, or thin branch of a tree, probably from the rustling sound made by the breeze among the lighter branches. To make a rustling noise was "hriscian." 2 Dute. Shortened from "dedute." Old French deduit, diversion, pastime. The word in its other form, "dedute," is in line 50; its root is in the Latin deducere. 3 Bure. First English, "bur," bower, an inner room, bedchamber, also a cottage or dwelling; from "buan," to inhabit. Elinglich. First English, "eglian," and "elian," to feel pain, now spelt, to "ail," is from "egl," a sprout, beard of corn, pricks of a thistle, that which pricks or troubles; "ælinge," trouble, weariness. -Hi, the unaltered First English nominative plural of he, heo, hit (he, she, it). DRINK. From Sloane MS.-2435, fol. 44. 8 Trie. From the French trier, to pick out. 9 None. The ninth hour, at which the Romans ate their cana, or chief meal. The first meal of the Romans was the jantaculum, usually of bread and salt, with some relish, as olives, cheese, or dried grapes, eaten unceremoniously anywhere. With this they broke fast after rising. At the sixth hour, that is to say, about midday, came the prandium, or lunch. Then, half-way between mid-day and sunset, about the ninth hour, came the cana, or dinner, elaborated, into three divisions: "gustus," the whet; "fercula," the dinner itself in three courses; "mensæ secundæ," pastry and dessert. The "none (in summer from half-past two to half-past three) was associated generally with the Roman cana; and in the monasteries remained associated with the dinner-hour, when that had come to be twelve o'clock in the day. Therefore twelve o'clock was called noon. 10 Russin. I take this to represent a draught of wine between dinner and supper, the drink between meals often condemned by old writers. Our words " rouse " and " carouse, ," meant emptying of the wine-cup. "No jocund health that Denmark drinks to-day The king's "rouse" is the king's emptying of his cup. And again (Act I seggel for soth, boute were, Under heaven there certainly is no land ة v. sc. 2), "The queen carouses to thy fortune, Hamlet." The word has been derived from the German gar aus, all out. But it may possibly be associated with the old French arrouser (modern arroser), which Cotgrave interprets "to bedew, besprinkle, wet gently." Arroser son chagrin is French for the drowning of one's sorrow in the bottle. So, from the old French arrousoir (modern, arrosier) comes the Scottish "rooser," for a watering-can. There is also the Danish "ruus," for surfeit in drinking. "Sove ruusen ud," is to sleep out the excess of drinking-sleep oneself sober. Rushing" is given in Mr. J. O. Halliwell's valuable " Dictionary of Archaic and Provincial Words" as meaning refreshment in Northern English dialect; and russin was mentioned by a Times Special Commissioner, who wrote on the agricultural strike in the Eastern counties in 1874, as a local name for a refreshment taken by the Suffolk harvesters at four p.m. 1 Segge. First English secge," pronounced segge, then written so, and the g between two weak vowels softened to the y in "say." -Boute. First English butan," without, as in the motto of the Macintoshes: "Touch not the cat but a glove."-Were. First English "wære," caution; adj. "wær," wary, cautious. 2 Irisse. certainly. " 46 First English, gewis; "modern German, "gewiss; " 3 Mochil. First English, "mycel;" Scottish, "mickle;" Greek, μεγαλ. Baret. Icelandic, "barátta," a fight. It has been suggested that the barbarian was, to the civilised ancient, one whose language was an unintelligible sequence of sounds, imitated by repetition of the syllables, "bar bar;" and that the same sense of bar applied to the confused noise of strife in war, or in the old haggling of trade, gave the Italian "baratta," strife; "barattare," to cheat-whence, perhaps, our word " barter;" the Spanish, "barajar," to confuse, dispute "barahunda," confusion, disorder; the old French, "barguigner," to wrangle, haggle, chaffer, bargain; and other such words. Baragouin now means, in French, the jargon or confused sound of talk not properly understood. See Mr. Hensleigh Wedgwood's "Dictionary of English Etymology," a suggestive work, ingeniously enforcing the mimetic origin of words. Capil. Gaelic, "capull;" Latin, "caballus;" French, "cheval." • Horugh. First English, "hóru," hórh," and "hórg," dirt, filth, any pollution.-La! and eala! were exclamations, not of sorrow only. "Eala was used generally, and sometimes as a mere vocative sign. The "las" in helas" and "alas" signifies lament.- Wot. From First English, "witan," to know; "he wát," he knows. Weakening of the strong a to short o turned "wát" into "wot." Nother harace,7 nother stode; There's neither fly, nor flea, nor louse, In cloth, in toune, bed, no house; Ok al is game, ioi and gle: Ther beth riuers, gret and fine, Ther is a wel 10 fair abbei Of cherche, cloister, boure, and halle. 7 Harace. French, "haras," a stud. Emil Littré, in that masterpiece of patient study, his French Dictionary, the most thorough book of the kind ever produced by one man, confirms the suggestion of Diez that the word is from the Arabic "faras," a horse." Ok. First English, "ac," but. 9 Dedute. See note 2, page 19. 10 Wel was frequently used, as in this line, for an intensive. This use of the word is not obsolete. We may still speak of a man as "well on for fifty," or "well-nigh dead." 11 The Black Monks were the Benedictines, the White Monks the Augustinians; the White Friars were Carmelites, the Grey Friars Franciscans. 12 Likfullest. From First English, "liccian," to lick, was formed "liccera," a glutton. The word also was used for a flatterer. 13 Scingles. The old English 'shingles" and shindles," old German "scindala," old French " escandale," Italian "scandola," come from the Latin, in which " scindula," the cleft thing, from "scindere," to cut, and "scandula "-probably from "scandere," to mount-the rising thing, were names for the cleft pieces of oak rising and lapping over one another, as the roofing of a house or church, or The pinnes beth fat podinges, One may thereof eat enough, Al with right and noght with wogh.' To stoute and sterne, mek and bold. Ther is a cloistre fair and light, Of grene jaspe and rede corale. Of green jasper and red coral. In the praer2 is a tre In the meadow is a tree Swithe3 likful for to se. Very delicate to see. The rote is gingeuir and galingale,1 The root is ginger and galangal, The siouns beth al sedwale,5 The young shoots are of zedoary, Picked maces are the flower, covering of a church steeple. Thus, John Ray says that he found at St. Asaph "a very poor cathedral, covered with shingles or tiles." In "The Vision of Piers Plowman," Noah's Ark is called a shingled ship. Shingle, as a name for loose stones on the beach, is perhaps a word formed from another root; but as that shingle consists of fragments forcibly separated by the sea from the adjacent land, the word may very well come also from the root of " scindere," to cut, tear, rend, or break asunder. In both cases the word was also written "chingle." In the "Promptorium Parvulorum," an English-Latin dictionary made about the year 1440, the "scingle" of the text above stands as chyngyl, or chyngle, bordys for helyngys of housis: sindula." 1 Wogh. First English, “ woh," a curve, or bending; that which deviates from the right line: error, wrong. "Woh-nosu," a crooked nose; "woh-dóm," crooked or wrongful judgment. 2 Praer. Latin, "pratum;" old French, "praerie:" hence the name of the American " prairies." 3 Swithe. The final e is an adverbial sign. First English, "swith," strong; "swithe," strongly, very. ♦ Galingale. Root of the East Indian Alpinia galanga. It looks like ginger, has a pleasant aromatic smell, and tastes like a mixture of pepper and ginger, with some bitterness. Galangale was much used in our early cookery, and was a customary ingredient in the favourite sauce called "galantine," made of bread-crumbs, ginger, galangale, vinegar, and salt, to which might be added cinnamon and red wine; or the galantine was made sometimes with crumbs, cinnamon, and ginger, vinegar, sugar, and claret. 5 Sedirale. Also "setewale," zedoary, a plant with a root like that of ginger, but larger leaves, of which the root was also brought from the East Indies. It has an aromatic camphorated taste, and many virtues were ascribed to it. It was said to correct discomforts in the stomach; and very little of it, chewed, covered the smell of onions, garlic, or wine. It was said to be hot and dry; by promoting digestion, to fatten the body, strengthen it if weak, and act as a preservative against pestilential vapours. Cut into slices and preserved in sugar, it has been thought more excellent and commodious than ginger. The rind canel" of swet odur, The rind canella bark of sweet odour, Of cubebs there is no lack. And lilies delicate to see ; Thai faloweth 10 neuer day no night; This aght be a swete sight. There are four wells in the abbey, Of triacle" and halwei,12 Of theriac and healing cup,, 66 11 Triacle. "Theriaca"-Onpiaкn, from @npiov, a wild animal-was the name of an antidote to poison of all kinds. Galen called garlic "the countryman's theriace;" but the name was first given to a famous compound of many simples, said to be an antidote to poison of all kinds. This compound was perfected about Nero's time, by a physician named Andromachus, who first thought of quickening its efficacy by the addition of the flesh of vipers. Andromachus describes its composition in verses quoted by Galen (in his treatise, "De Theriaca, ad Pisonem "), and gave to it names expressive of its soothing, cheering properties. But others named it, theriake," because of the viper's flesh that now formed part of it. Many physicians had formulas of their own for the theriaca. There was a theriacal salt, the preparation of which began by putting four vipers alive into an earthen pot, throwing over them twenty pounds of sal-ammoniac, or common salt, then many herbs, bruised and beaten up with honey, then putting fire under the pot, and after much stewing and long cooling, adding many bruised aromatic herbs and spices. The original Theriaca of Andromachus contained about sixty ingredients, chiefly aromatics, with gums and extracts, including opium and the viper flesh. Opium was used in the proportion of a grain to four scruples of the whole compound, and to this, no doubt, the confection owed its first name of yaλnn" calm-procuring." The vipers entered into the composition in the form of little prepared cakes or lozenges, that consisted of their flesh carefully cleaned, boiled in water with dill and salt, and then kneaded into paste with crumbs of bread. The theriaca of Andromachus was declared to be a remedy for most ills of the flesh, and was in such repute at Rome that some of the emperors had it made on their own premises. The Emperor Antoninus took a piece as large 28 a bean every morning fasting. For centuries it continued to be prepared in many towns of Europe, according to the original recipe, and at Venice the manufacture of it was so large that it acquired the name of "Venice treacle." "Theriac "had become the "triac" in "triacle," afterwards written " treacle." So Jeremy Taylor wrote, "We kill the viper, and make treacle of him." Since triacle was an electuary made with honey and tinged with saffron, the uncrystallisable syrup that drains from the sugar refiner's mould had some resem. blance to it, and inherited its name. The powers assigned to this great medicine against ills of the flesh caused the author of "The Vision of Piers Plowman" to call Love the "Triacle of Heaven." 12 Halwei. “Hál," whole, sound, healthy; "wag," a cup; "halwei," "haliweie," "halewi," occurs in various pieces, as the name of a healing balsamic draught, mild enough to be taken by the cupful. Of triacle, because of the opium in it, a piece as big as a bean was a fair dose. |