PUNCTUATION,

AND OTHER POINTS, OR CHARACTERS, MADE USE OF IN WRITING

AND PRINTING.

PUNCTUATION is the art of pointing written composition in such a manner as may naturally lead to its proper meaning, construction, and delivery; and it thus indicates the several pauses, or rests, between sentences, and parts of sentences, according to their proper quantity or proportion, as they are expressed in just and accurate pronunciation.

The following are the principal stops or pauses in a sentence; viz. the comma (,), the semicolon (;), the colon (:), the period, or full point (.), the note of admiration (!), and the note of interrogation (?).

The comma (,) is a pause in reading, while you may tell one, and is mostly used to distinguish nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs; as, "It is very difficult to make fine pictures, handsome statues, good music, good verses." It likewise prevents ambiguity in the sense: as, "Epistolary writing, by which a great part of the commerce of human life is carried on, was esteemed by the Romans a liberal and polite accomplishment." When an address is made to a person, answering to the vocative case in Latin, a comma is placed before and after the noun: as, "Commune with thyself, O man, and consider wherefore thou wast made."

The semicolon (;) is a pause double the duration of the comma, and is used to distinguish the different members or parts of a sentence: as, "A vain hope flattereth the heart of a fool; but he who is wise pursueth it not. Be grateful to thy father, for he gave thee life; and to thy mother, for she sustained thee.' The colon (:) is a pause triple the duration of the comma, and shews the preceding sentence to be perfect and entire, only that some remark, further illustration, or other matter connected therewith, is subjoined: as, "He who giveth away his treasure wisely, giveth away his plagues: he who retaineth its increase, heapeth up sorrow.

The period, or full point (.), is a pause quadruple the duration of the comma, and denotes a full and perfect sentence, which is always distinguished by this point: as, "A noble spirit disdaineth the malice of fortune. His greatness of soul is not to be cast down."

The note of admiration (!) is used to express wonder, or exclamation: as, "Who art thou, O man! who presumest on thine own wisdom?"

The note of interrogation (?) is used to show when a question is asked: as, "What day of the month is this?" It likewise distinguishes a real question from a sentence in the imperative mode: as, "Do you hear me?"

Besides the above points, there are other marks made use of in books and writing as references, or to point out something remarkable or defective: as, Accent (') placed over a vowel, or the last consonant of a syllable, shows the stress of the voice, in pronouncing a word, to be on that syllable over or immediately before which it is placed.

Apostrophe ('), is a comma placed over a word, to denote the omission of a letter, for the sake of a quicker pronunciation: as, plac'd for placed, ne'er for

never.

Asterism, or asterisk (*) a star, and Parallel (||), direct to some note at the foot of the page.

Obelisk or Dagger (†), refers likewise to some note in the margin, &c.; and in dictionaries it commonly shews the word to be obsolete.

The Index, or Hand (), points to some very remarkable passage.
Breve () over a vowel, denotes that it sounds short.

Circumflex (^), or (~), is placed over a vowel to denote a long syllable: as, Euphrâtes, or Euphrates.

Diæresis ("), consists of two points placed over one of two conjoining vowels; thus dividing them into two syllables; as aërial.

Hyphen (-), is a short line to join syllables or words together.

Parenthesis, marked thus (), serves to include a sentence which might be omitted, without any prejudice to the general meaning; notwithstanding it may be necessary for the explanation thereof; as, "Pardon me (added she, embracing me), I now believe what you say.

Bracket, or Crotchet, thus [], includes such a word from the sentence as serves to explain the word immediately preceding: as, "A treatise of [concerning] English Grammar.

Paragraph (¶), denotes the beginning of a new subject.- -The pause here may be greater than at a period.

Section (§), is used to divide a chapter into less particular arguments.

Ellipsis, marked thus (—), or (..............), denotes that part of a word is left out: as, Kg, for King.

Caret (4), is placed underneath a line, to shew that some letter, word, or sentence, is left out by mistake; and must be inserted exactly in that place.

Quotation (“), is a double comma reversed at the beginning of a line, which shews that a passage is quoted, or transcribed, from some author in his own words,

Cata, down; as catastrophe, cataract.

Dia, through; as diagonal, diameter, diaphanous.

Epi, upon, or over; as episcopacy, epidemic, epigram, epitaph.
Hyper, overmuch; as hypercritical, hyperbole.

Hypo, under; as hypocrite, hypothesis.

Meta, change; as metamorphosis, metaphor, metonymy.

Para, beside, from; as paradox, parable, parasol, parody, parhelion.
Peri, round about, or near; as perimeter, perihelion.

Syn, together; as synod, sympathy, syllable, synthesis.

ORTHOGRAPHY is the art of correct spelling, and is of essential importance in the study of the English language. It cannot be acquired entirely by means of rules, for the requisite number would be an intolerable burden to the memory; nor is learning the spelling of words by rote a more practicable method. But there are a few general rules, easily remembered, attention to which will undoubtedly prevent any person's writing being much disfigured by bad spelling. To these we have now to direct attention.

The following words ought to be begun with capital letters:-The first word of every sentence; the first word of every line of poetry; names of the Supreme Being; proper nouns; adjectives derived from proper nouns; the names of the days of the week, of holidays, and of the months; the pronoun I; and any leading name in the sentence which the author desires to make emphatic.

When a word ending in silent e receives an augment (an increase) beginning with a vowel, the e is omitted; as, give, giving; sense, sensible; fame, famous, cure, curable. The e is changed into i before fy and ty; as pure, purity, purify; active, activity. When the silent e is preceded by v, c, or g soft, it is usually retained before able and ous; as move, moveable, peace, peaceable; courage, courageous. The e is also retained before ful, less, ly, ment, ness, some, ty; as peaceful, nameless, wisely, excilement, whiteness, wholesome, surety.

It is an established rule in the English language, that words which end with the vowel e, and lengthen the sound of a preceding vowel (as in file, write, endure,) should drop the e on receiving a termination and becoming a derivative, if that termination begin with a vowel (as er, ed, ing, ance). Thus file-filer, filing, not fileer; endure, enduring, endurance, not endureance. But in cases where the e affects the sound of a preceding consonant it forms an exception: as in a word with a soft g, or where, in juxtaposition with another e, it forms one long vowel; thus, singe, singeing; see, seeing.

Monosyllabic words ending in a single consonant, not preceded by a long vowel, and words of more than one syllable ending in a single accented consonant, and of course not preceded by a long vowel, double the final consonant in all the derivatives which are formed by a termination beginning with a vowel; as fit, fitted, fitteth, fitting; bar, barred, barreth; abet, abetted; compel, compelled. Without this doubling of the final consonant, the vowel in the accented syllable of the primitive word (that is the e in abet) would

be pronounced wrong in the derivative (abetted, &c.), namely, with its long sound-fited, bāred, abēted. Hence the reason why verbs having the long sound of a vowel do not double the last consonant; as feared, defiled, bloated. Words ending in a single consonant, but not having the accent on the last syllable, do not double the final consonant in derivatives; as limit, limited. civil, civility; enter, entered; yet there still remain a small number keeping their ground in the printing-houses, such as leveller, traveller, rivalling, worshipper, &c.

A word ending in I usually drops one 7 on becoming part of a compound word; as all, always; fill, fulfil; full, fruitful; till, until. But there are some exceptions to this rule; as recall, refill, uphill; which retain the orthography of their monosyllabic roots.

Words ending in y, preceded by a consonant, change the y into i on receiving an augment; as holy, holier; happy, happiness; pity, pitied. Exceptionsbefore ing, ish, and s, the y is retained; as flying, babyish, for pity's sake; also in dryness, slyly, shyness.

When the y is preceded by a vowel, it is retained; as boy, boyish; day, days; joy, joyful. Exceptions-Gaiety, said, paid, laid.

ALPHABETICAL LIST OF VERBS

WHICH ARE IRREGULAR IN THE FORMATION OF THEIR PAST TENSES AND

In the regular verbs they uniformly terminate in ed.

Those verbs marked r are conjugated regularly, as well as irregularly.

The compound words of irregular verbs, which are very numerous (as Forbid, Unbind, Withdraw, Forget, Forgive, &c.), are conjugated like their simple roots.