According to the same authority, the time at which the Milwaukee river was closed with ice, for a period of nine years, varied between November 15 and December 1; the time at which it became free from ice, between March 3 and April 13. In the lake district, snow and rain are interspersed through all the winter months, rain being sometimes as profuse as at any other season. In the northwestern part the winter is more rigid and dry. Northern New York and the New England states usually have snow lying on the ground the whole winter, but in the southern lake district it rarely remains so long. In 1842-43, however, sleighing commenced about the middle of November, and lasted till about the same time in April — five months.

The average temperature for the three months of spring, March, April and May, from Walworth county to St. Paul, is about 45°. In central Wisconsin the mean for March is about 27°, which is an increase of nearly 7° from February. The lowest temperature of this month in

1876 was 40° above zero. April shows an average increase of about 9o over March. In 1876 the line of 45° for this month passed from LaCrosse to Evanston, Ill., touching Lake Erie at Toledo, showing that the interior west of Lake Michigan is warmer than the lake region. The change from winter to spring is more sudden in the interior than in the vicinity of the lakes. "In the town of Lisbon, fifteen miles from Lake Michigan," says Dr. Lapham, "early spring flowers show themselves about ten days earlier than on the lake. In spring vegetation, in places remote from the lakes, shoots up in a very short time, and flowers show their petals, while on the lake shore the cool air retards them and brings them more gradually into existence." The increase from April to May is about 15°. In May, 1876, Pembina and Milwaukee had nearly the same mean temperature, about 55°.*

The extremes of our climate and the sudden changes of temperature no doubt have a marked influence, both physically and mentally, on the American people. And though a more equable climate may be more conducive to perfect health, the great range of our climate from arctic to tropical, and the consequent variety and abundance of vegetable products, combine to make the Mississippi valley perhaps one of the most favorable areas in the world for the development of a strong and wealthy nation.

During the months of summer, in the interior of the eastern United States, at least threefourths of the rain-fall is in showers usually accompanied by electrical discharges and limited to small areas. But in autumn, winter, and spring nearly the whole precipitation takes place in general storms extending over areas of 300, 500 and sometimes over 1,000 miles in diameter, and generally lasting two or three days. An area of low atmospheric pressure causes the wind to blow toward that area from all sides, and when the depression is sudden and great, it is accompanied by much rain or snow. On account of the earth's rotation, the wind blowing toward this region of low pressure is deflected to the right, causing the air to circulate around the center with a motion spirally inward. In our latitude the storm commences with east winds. When the storm center, or area of lowest barometer, is to the south of us, the wind gradually veers, as the storm passes from west to east with the upper current, round to the northwest by the north point. On the south side of the storm center, the wind veers from southeast to southwest, by the south point. The phenomena attending such a storm when we are in or near the part of its center are usually as follows: After the sky has become overcast with clouds, the wind from the northeast generally begins to rise and blows in the opposing direction to the march of the storm. clouds which are now moving over us, discharge rain or snow according to circumstances. barometer continues to fall, and the rain or snow is brought obliquely down from the northern quarter by the prevailing wind. After a while the wind changes slightly in direction and then The thermometer rises and the barometer has reached its lowest point. This is the center of the storm. After the calm the wind has changed its direction to northwest or west. The

ceases.

The
The

wind blows again, usually more violently than before, accompanied by rain or snow, which is now generally of short duration. The sky clears, and the storm is suddenly succeeded by a temperature 10 or 20 degrees below the mean. Most of the rain and snow falls with the east winds, or before the center passes a given point. The path of these storms is from west to east, or nearly so, and only seldom in other directions. These autumn, winter, and spring rains are generally first noticed on the western plains, but may originate at any point along their path, and move eastward with an average velocity of about 20 miles an hour in summer and 30 miles in winter, but sometimes attaining a velocity of over 50 miles, doing great damage on the lakes. In predicting these storms, the signal service of the army is of incalculable practical benefit, as well as in collecting data for scientific conclusions.

A subject of the greatest importance to every inhabitant of Wisconsin is the influence of forests on climate and the effects of disrobing a county of its trees. The general influence of forests in modifying the extremes of temperature, retarding evaporation and the increased humidity of the air, has already been mentioned. That clearing the land of trees increases the temperature of the ground in summer, is so readily noticed that it is scarcely necessary to mention it; while in winter the sensible cold is never so extreme in woods as on an open surface exposed to the full force of the winds. "The lumbermen in Canada and the northern United States labor in the woods without inconvenience, when the mercury stands many degrees below zero, while in the open grounds, with only a moderate breeze, the same temperature is almost insupportable." "In the state of Michigan it has been found that the winters have greatly increased in severity within the last forty years, and that this increased severity seems to move along even-paced with the destruction of the forests. Thirty years ago the peach was one of the most abundant fruits of that State; at that time frost, injurious to corn at any time from May to October, was a thing unknown. Now the peach is an uncertain crop, and frost often injures the corn." The precise influence of forests on temperature may not at present admit of definite solution, yet the mechanical screen which they furnish to the soil often far to the leeward of them, is sufficiently established, and this alone is enough to encourage extensive planting wherever this protection is wanting.

With regard to the quantity of rain-fall, “we can not positively affirm that the total annual quantity of rain is even locally diminished or increased by the destruction of the woods, though both theoretical considerations and the balance of testimony strongly favor the opinion that more rain falls in wooded than in open countries. One important conclusion, at least, upon the meteorological influence of forests is certain and undisputed: the proposition, namely, that, within their own limits, and near their own borders, they maintain a more uniform degree of humidity in the atmosphere than is observed in cleared grounds. Scarcely less can it be questioned that they tend to promote the frequency of showers, and, if they do not augment the amount of precipitation, they probably equalize its distribution through the different seasons."

There is abundant and undoubted evidence that the amount of water existing on the surface in lakes and rivers, in many parts of the world, is constantly diminishing. In Germany, observations of the Rhine, Oder, Danube, and the Elbe, in the latter case going back for a period of 142 years, demonstrate beyond doubt, that each of these rivers has much decreased in volume, and there is reason to fear that they will eventually disappear from the list of navigable rivers.

"The 'Blue-Grass region of Kentucky, once the pride of the West, has now districts of such barren and arid nature that their stock farmers are moving toward the Cumberland mountains, because the creeks and old springs dried up, and their wells became too low to furnish water for their cattle." In our own state "such has been the change in the flow of the Milwau

kee river, even while the area from which it receives its supply is but partially cleared, that the proprietors of most of the mills and factories have found it necessary to resort to the use of steam, at a largely increased yearly cost, to supply the deficiency of water-power in dry seasons of the year." "What has happened to the Milwaukee river, has happened to all the other water courses in the state from whose banks the forest has been removed; and many farmers who selected land uqon which there was a living brook of clear, pure water, now find these brooks dried up during a considerable portion of the year."

Districts stripped of their forest are said to be more exposed than before to loss of harvests, to droughts and frost. "Hurricanes, before unknown, sweep unopposed over the regions thus denuded, carrying terror and devastation in their track." Parts of Asia Minor, North Africa, and other countries bordering on the Mediterranean, now almost deserts, were once densely populated and the granaries of the world. And there is good reason to believe "that it is the destruction of the forests which has produced this devastation." From such facts Wisconsin, already largely robbed of its forests, should take warning before it is too late.

TREES, SHRUBS AND VINES.

By P. R. HOY, M.D.

It is not the purpose of this article to give a botanical description, but merely brief notes on the economical value of the woods, and the fitness of the various indigenous trees, shrubs and vines for the purpose of ornament, to be found in Wisconsin.

WHITE OAK-Quercus Alba.—This noble tree is the largest and most important of the American oaks. The excellent properties of the wood render it eminently valuable for a great variety of uses. Wherever strength and durability are required, the white oak stands in the first rank. It is employed in making wagons, coaches and sleds; staves and hoops of the best quality for barrels and casks are obtained from this tree; it is extensively used in architecture, shipbuilding, etc.; vast quantities are used for fencing; the bark is employed in tanning. The domestic consumption of this tree is so great that it is of the first importance to preserve the young trees wherever it is practicable, and to make young plantations where the tree is not found. The white oak is a graceful, ornamental tree, and worthy of particular attention as such; found abundantly in most of the timbered districts.

Nothing

BURR OAK-Q. Macrocarpa.-This is perhaps the most ornamental of our oaks. can exceed the graceful beauty of these trees, when not crowded or cramped in their growth, but left free to follow the laws of their development. Who has not admired these trees in our extensive burr oak openings? The large leaves are a dark green above and a bright silvery white. beneath, which gives the tree a singularly fine appearance when agitated by the wind. The wood is tough, close-grained, and more durable than the white oak, especially when exposed to frequent changes of moisture and drying; did the tree grow to the same size, it would be preferred for most uses. Abundant, and richly worthy of cultivation, both for utility and ornament.

SWAMP WHITE OAK-Q. Bicolor.—Is a valuable and ornamental tree, not quite so large or as common as the burr oak. The wood is close-grained, durable, splits freely, and is well worthy of cultivation in wet, swampy grounds, where it will thrive.

POST OAK-Q. Obtusiloba.-Is a scraggy, small tree, found sparingly in this state. The timber is durable, and makes good fuel. Not worthy of cultivation.

SWAMP CHESTNUT OAK-Q. Prinus.-This species of chestnut oak is a large, graceful tree, wood rather open-grained, yet valuable for most purposes to which the oaks are applied; makes the best fuel of any of this family. A rare tree, found at Janesville and Brown's lake, near Burlington. Worthy of cultivation.

RED OAK-Q. Rubra.-The red oak is a well-known, common, large tree. The wood is coarse-grained, and the least durable of the oaks, nearly worthless for fuel, and scarcely worthy of cultivation, even for ornament.

PIN OAK-Q. Palustris.—This is one of the state. The wood is of little value except for fuel. sparingly cultivated for this purpose.

most common trees in many sections of the The tree is quite ornamental, and should be

SHINGLE OAK-Q. Imbricaria.-Is a tree of medium size, found sparingly as far north as Wisconsin. It is ornamental, and the wood is used for shingles and staves.

SCARLET OAK-Q. Coccinea.—This is an ornamental tree, especially in autumn, when its leaves turn scarlet, hence the name. Wood of little value; common.

SUGAR MAPLE—Acer Saccharium.—This well-known and noble tree is found growing abundantly in many sections of the state. The wood is close-grained and susceptible of a beautiful polish, which renders it valuable for many kinds of furniture, more especially the varieties known as bird's-eye and curled maples. The wood lacks the durability of the oak; consequently is not valuable for purposes where it will be exposed to the weather. For fuel it ranks next to hickory. The sugar manufactured from this tree affords no inconsiderable resource for the comfort and even wealth of many sections of the northern states, especially those newly settled, where it would be difficult and expensive to procure their supply from a distance. As an ornamental tree it stands almost at the head of the catalogue. The foliage is beautiful, compact, and free from the attacks of insects. It puts forth its yellow blossoms early, and in the autumn the leaves change in color and show the most beautiful tints of red and yellow long before they fall. Worthy of especial attention for fuel and ornament, and well adapted to street-planting.

for fuel not quite so Though highly orna

RED MAPLE-A. Rubrum.—Is another fine maple of more rapid growth than the foregoing species. With wood rather lighter, but quite as valuable for cabinet-work good. The young trees bear transplanting even better than other maples. mental, this tree hardly equals the first-named species. It puts forth, in early spring, its scarlet blossoms before a leaf has yet appeared. Well adapted to street-planting.

MOUNTAIN MAPLE-A. Spicatum.-Is a small branching tree, or rather shrub, found growing in clumps. Not worthy of much attention.

SILVER MAPLE—A. Dasycarpum.—This is a common tree growing on the banks of streams, especially in the western part of the state, grown largely for ornament, yet for the purpose it is the least valuable of the maples. The branches are long and straggling, and so brittle that they are liable to be injured by winds.

BOX MAPLE-Negundo Aceroides.—This tree is frequently called box elder. It is of a rapid growth and quite ornamental. The wood is not much used in the arts, but is good fuel. Should be cultivated. It grows on Sugar and Rock rivers.

WHITE ELM-Ulmus Americana.-This large and graceful tree stands confessedly at the head of the list of ornamental deciduous trees. Its wide-spreading branches and long, pendulous branchlets form a beautiful and conspicuous head. It grows rapidly, is free from disease and the destructive attacks of insects, will thrive on most soils, and for planting along streets, in public grounds or lawns, is unsurpassed by any American tree. The wood is but little used in the arts; makes good firewood; should be planted along all the roads and streets, near every dwelling, and on all public grounds.

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The

SLIPPERY ELM-V. Fulva.-This smaller and less ornamental species is also common. wood, however, is much more valuable than the white elm, being durable and splitting readily. It makes excellent rails, and is much used for the framework of buildings; valuable for fuel; should be cultivated.

WILD BLACK CHERRY-Cerasus Serotina.—This large and beautiful species of cherry is one of the most valuable of American trees. The wood is compact, fine-grained, and of a brilliant reddish color, not liable to warp, or shrink and swell with atmospheric changes; extensively employed by cabinet-makers for every species of furnishing. It is exceedingly durable, hence is valuable for fencing, building, etc. Richly deserves a place in the lawn or timber plantation. BIRD CHERRY-C. Pennsylvanica.-Is a small northern species, common in the state and worthy of cultivation for ornament.

CHOKE CHERRY-C. Virginiana.-This diminutive tree is of little value, not worth the trouble of cultivation.

WILD PLUM-Prunus Americana.-The common wild plum when in full bloom is one of the most ornamental of small flowering trees, and as such should not be neglected. The fruit is rather agreeable, but not to be compared to fine cultivated varieties, which may be engrafted on the wild stock to the very best advantage. It is best to select small trees, and work them on the roots. The grafts should be inserted about the middle of April.

HACKBERRY-Celtis Occidentalis.-This is an ornamental tree of medium size; wood hard, close-grained and elastic; makes the best of hoops, whip-stalks, and thills for carriages. The Indians formerly made great use of the hackberry wood for their bows. A tree worthy of a limited share of attention.

AMERICAN LINDEN OR BASSWOOD-Tilia Americana.-Is one of the finest ornamental trees for public grounds, parks, etc., but will not thrive where the roots are exposed to bruises; for this reason it is not adapted to planting along the streets of populous towns. The wood is light and tough, susceptible of being bent to almost any curve; durable if kept from the weather; takes paint well, and is considerably used in the arts; for fuel it is of little value. This tree will flourish in almost any moderately rich, damp soil; bears transplanting well; can be propagated readily from layers.

WHITE THORN-Crataegus Coccinea, and DOTTED THORN-C. Punctata.-These two species of thorn are found everywhere on the rich bottom lands. When in bloom they are beautiful, and should be cultivated for ornament. The wood is remarkably compact and hard, and were it not for the small size of the tree, would be valuable.

CRAB APPLE-Pyrus Coronaria.-This common small tree is attractive when covered with its highly fragrant rose-colored blossoms. Wood hard, fine, compact grain, but the tree is too small for the wood to be of much practical value. Well worthy of a place in extensive grounds. MOUNTAIN ASH-P. Americana.—This popular ornament to our yards is found growing in the northern part of the state and as far south as 43°. The wood is useless.

WHITE ASH-Fraxinus Acuminata.—Is a large, interesting tree, which combines utility with beauty in an eminent degree. The wood possesses strength, suppleness and elasticity, which renders it valuable for a great variety of uses. It is extensively employed in carriage manufacturing; for various agricultural implements; is esteemed superior to any other wood for oars; excellent for fuel. The white ash grows rapidly, and in open ground forms one of the most lovely trees that is to be found. The foliage is clean and handsome, and in autumn turns from its bright green to a violet purple hue, which adds materially to the beauty of our autumnal sylvan scenery. It is richly deserving our especial care and protection, and will amply repay all labor and expense bestowed on its cultivation.