after applying the public money to the payment of teachers' wages, to be made up by district taxation. This act was submitted to the people, and approved by a vote of 249,872 in its favor, and 91,151 against it. In 1850, the Free School Act as it was called, was repealed; but being again submitted to the people, the act itself was sustained. In 1851 the law was again repealed, and a State tax of $800,000 was levied, to be distributed with the school moneys in the support of schools, instead of the county tax, equal in amount to the annual distribution from the school fund. In 1856, to the State tax of $800,000, a levy of three-fourths of a mill upon every dollar of real and personal estate was made, which has since been increased to one and one-fourth of a mill, yielding in 1872 the net sum of $2,565,672.

To secure the services of well qualified teachers, and to exclude the incompetent and immoral, was a primary object with the commissioners who reported the original school law of 1811. This they aimed to effect by the appointment of inspectors to whom the examination of all candidates was given, and without whose certificate no teacher could be legally employed. This mode tested the attainments of candidates, but provided no way in advance of actual experience of acquiring the requisite knowledge whereby better qualifications could be had of principles and methods of teaching. To remedy this, Gov. Clinton in 1825 and in 1826 recommended a 'seminary for the education of teachers in those useful branches of knowledge already introduced in all our common schools,' and in 1828 he urges the establishment in each county of a Monitorial High School (after the model of one in Livingston County, under the charge of C. C.. Felton-afterwards President of Harvard College), 'in which better methods of teaching shall be at once taught and exemplified.' In 1826, Mr. John C. Spencer, from the Literature Committee of the Senate (to whom the recommendations of the Governor had been referred), recommended that the income of the Literature Fund should be divided among the academies, not in proportion to the number of classical students, but to the number of persons instructed in each, who shall have been licensed as teachers of public schools by the proper boards.' In 1827, Mr. Spencer, from the same committee, reported an act by which the Literature Fund was increased for the avowed purpose in the preamble of promoting the education of teachers,' 'the incompetency of the great mass of whom is radical, and defeats the whole system, and the hopes and wishes of all who feel an interest in disseminating the blessings of education.'

In 1834, a portion of the income of the Literature Fund was set apart, to be distributed by the regents to such academics, subject to their visitation, as will provide for the education of teachers for the common schools.' Under this provision, one academy was selected in each of the eight senatorial districts, in which was erected a department devoted to this particular work, known as the Teachers' Department; and in 1838, by an act appropriating the income of the United States Deposit Fund for the purposes of education, $28,000 was appropriated to the several academies on condition that the academies receiving any of its distributive share equal to $700 should establish and maintain a department for the instruction of common school teachers.' Under this provision the number of academies with this special course for teachers was increased to fifteen; and in 1871, under a revision of the previous législation on the subject in 1855, 'the science of common school teaching' was taught to 'teachers' classes' in 87 academies, with a total attendance of 1,494 pupil teachers.

In 1840, Prof. Potter, of Union College (afterwards Bishop Potter, of Pennsylvania), in a special report founded on a personal visit to the academies having teachers' departments, recommends 'the establishment of one institution at the capital, devoted exclusively to the education of teachers.'. The same recommendation was indorsed by the superintendent (John C. Spencer), in his report to the legislature of that year. In 1844, the committee on colleges, academies, and common schools, in the House of Representatives, through the chairman (Mr. Hulburt), after visiting the Normal Schools of Massachusetts, reported a bill to establish a Normal School at Albany for the instruction and practice of teachers for common schools in the science of education and in the art of teaching,' appropriating $10,000 annually for five years for its support. This school, in a building furnished gratuitously by the city of Albany, went into operation in December, 1844; and, after a successful trial of four years, received in 1848 from the State a special appropriation to provide permanent accommodations, and an annual appropriation of $12,000 for its support. In 1863, aid was extended to the Training School at Oswego, which was formally recognized a State Normal School in 1866; and in 1864, provision was made for six other institutions located in different parts of the State; the citizens of Brockport, Fredonia, Cortland, Potsdam, Geneseo, and Buffalo, having furnished suitable buildings at an aggregate expense of $500,000. The value of the grounds, buildings, and equipment of the State Normal Schools is estimated at $829,739,

and the annual expense to maintain them, at $150,000. With the Normal pupils are large schools and classes of children whose exercises are made subsidiary to the main object of the institution. In 1872, there were 5,807 students in attendance on the different departments of the 8 normal schools.

In 1839, Francis Dwight secured the consolidation of all the school districts in Geneva, and inaugurated the union or graded system in New York; and in 1840 issued the first number of the District School Journal, a copy of which the superintendent obtained authority to send to every school district.

By the Union Free School Act of 1853, cities and villages divided into districts were enabled to consolidate for the purpose of maintaining graded schools, and for making them free in advance of the general free school act of 1867. Under the operation of this act, more than ninety academies included within the limits of such districts were absorbed into the general system, becoming the High Schools of the united districts. The whole number of such schools in 1870 was 694.

In 1835, the first legislative provision for school libraries was made. To James Wadsworth of Geneseo, a native of Connecticut, belongs the credit of originating the system of district school libraries. In 1811, in a letter addressed to one of the commissioners appointed by Gov. Tompkins to report to the legislature a system for the organization and establishment of common schools, Mr. Wadsworth (after giving the outline of the system of common schools actually adopted) suggested that it should be made the duty of the State Commissioner to send to the school inspector of each town a 'Lancaster Manual,' containing observations on teaching and school government, and thus diffuse throughout the State the latest and most practical information as to approved methods.' In 1832 he was instrumental in securing the distribution of a copy of Hall's Lectures on School Teaching,' to each school district (9,000), and in 1833 recommended the incorporation into the school act, of a provision authorizing a majority of the voters 'to raise by a tax on the property of each district $15 or $20 as a commencement of, and $5 or $10 annually, as a perennial spring, to purchase and sustain a school library,' until 1835, when the foundation of the district school library was laid by the passage of an act giving the authority as above suggested. To secure a beginning in this direction, Mr. Wadsworth offered to pay one-fourth of the $20 to all districts in Avon and Geneseo, and then offered $20 to the first five districts in Henrietta which should adopt the

same, and employed the Rev. Mr. Page to give lectures on the subject, in all towns of Livingston County, and in other sections. In 1838 he labored to secure the appropriation of a portion of the income of the United States Deposit Fund for the same purpose; and through the exertions of the Hon. G. W. Patterson, who was then Speaker of the House, and the Hon. D. D. Barnard, chairman of the committee, this was accomplished, and $55,000 was annually appropriated for the purpose. To his labors in this direction should be added the publication, at his expense, of The School and the Schoolmaster-the first prepared by Prof. Alonzo Porter, and the last by George B. Emerson of Boston, and the distribution of over 15,000 copies, one to each school district, and to town and county school officers. Mr. Wadsworth also paid the expense of the American edition of Cousin's Report on the School System of Prussia in 1834, and aided J. Orville Taylor in the publication of the Common School Advocate from 1835 to 1838.

The common schools are situated in 11,350 districts, taught in houses which, with their sites, are valued at $23,468,266, accommodating 1,028,147 children in attendance some portion of the year (to which should be added 5,807 in normal schools, 30,370 in academies, 3,194 in colleges, 135,433 in private schools), taught by 28,217 teachers (21,668 females). The average daily attendance of children attending the common schools is placed at only 493,648.

The means for the support of schools for the year 1872 were derived from the following sources, viz., The Common School Fund ($3,004,513), $170,000; United States Deposit Fund ($4,414,520), income $165, 000; State school tax (14 per cent. on the valuation), $2,610,784; by local tax, $6,552,994, making a total of $10,874,910. Among the items of expenditure we find, for the wages of common school teachers, $6,510,164; district school libraries, $30,917; school apparatus, $179,156; colored schools, $678,582; school construction and furniture, $1,982,547; incidental expenses, $1,164,142; appropriation for academies, $44,646; teachers' classes in academies, $15,345; Teachers' Institutes, $16,171; Normal Schools, $128,723; Cornell University, $25,000; Indian schools, $6,837; superintendent of public instruction, $18,127; regents of universities, $6,349; printing registers for school districts, $13,000. To these items should be added the following not included in the aggregate above given: deaf and dumb institution, $103,923; institution for the blind at New York, $39,903; institution for the blind at Batavia, $40,500; State asylum for idiots, $50,000;

orphan asylums, $579,750; school commissioners' salaries, $90,187; state reformatory at Elmira, $198,000.

The enormous sums expended for the common schools of New York will be realized in the fact that from 1850, when the school expenditure was $1,607,684, to 1872, when the total expenditure was $9,607,903-a period of 22 years-the aggregate expenditure was nearly $106,146,344.

In 1825, orphans in special asylums were first recognized as entitled to a distributive share of any money appropriated to common schools, which is now made the basis of the special appropriation in their behalf to the amount, in 1871, of $472,760. The total estimated value of the property of orphan asylums and homes for the friendless, Sept. 30, 1871, was $9,389,539, and the gross expenditure for their support in that year was $2,303,947. The number of children supported and educated was 15,422.

In 1866, the superintendent was charged with providing schools for the Indian children, which in 1871 numbered 1,073, in 27 schools, at a cost of $8,559.

The system of common schools rests on territorial subdivisions of the State known as School Districts, whose boundaries are defined and altered by the School Commissioners, and on Union Free School Districts, formed with special powers under the act of 1853, and the City Districts created by special acts.

The officers intrusted with the administration of the system, beginning at the lowest point, are:

1. District Trustees-composed of one or three, as the district may decide. The three act as a board, and the sole trustee has the same power as a board of three. These powers and duties are: to call meetings; to make out tax lists and warrants; to purchase sites, and build or hire school-houses; to insure district property; to have the custody and safe keeping of the schoolhouse and other property; to contract with and employ teachers, and pay them; and generally to attend to all the business of the district. They must make in October of every year, a return in form and substance as required by law, to the School Commissioner, as the basis of all school statistics, and such other information as the State Superintendent may from time to time require. There is also a district clerk, collector, and librarian.

2. Town Clerk for each town-is required to keep in his office all books, maps, papers, and records touching schools; to record in a book the certificate of apportionment of school moneys; to notify the trustees of the filing of such certificate; to obtain from trustees their annual reports; to furnish the School Commissioner with the names and post-office address of all district officers; to distribute to trustees all books and blanks forwarded to him for their use; to file and record the final accounts of supervisors; to preserve the supervisor's bond; to file and keep the description of district boundaries; and when called upon, to take part in the erection or alteration of a school district. The supervisor for each town receives all moneys destined for school purposes in the .town, and disburses according to law and the special direction of the State Superintendent.

3. School Commissioners—elected for certain districts originally established by boards of supervisors, but now determined by law to the number of 112 for the State. They have power, and it is their duty, to see that the boundaries of districts are correctly described; to visit and examine the schools; to advise with and counsel the trustees; to look after the condition of the schoolhouses, and condemn such as are entirely unfit for use; to recommend studies