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of every thing like generous enthusiasm or fearless sincerity, extends itself to our whole conduct. Now the advantages thus arising from foreign residence and instruction, it was the object of our ancestors to secure to our youth by positive institutions; and with this view it was that Balloil College, Oxford, and the Scotch College in the University of Paris, were founded, the first by Dervorguilla, the wife of the elder Balloil, in 1282, and the latter by David, Bishop of Moray, in 1325. Similar institutions of less celebrity existed in other parts of the Continent, all of which have either been swept away by successive revolutions, or converted into training schools for the exclusive use of the Roman Catholic priesthood. Those who know how rarely the advantages we have hinted at, to say nothing of the more special ones of positive scientific instruction, fall to the lot of those innumerable swarms of our youthful countrymen who at present infest every part of the Continent, will be able to appreciate the wisdom of an arrangement by which provision was made for the superintendence of their studies immediately on their arrival. Nor was it only where such establishments had been instituted for their benefit that Scotch students in earlier times had an advantage over those of our own day. To say nothing of the facilities afforded for foreign study by the use of Latin as the common language of the learned, there was scarcely a university on the Continent where Scotchmen did not hold professors' chairs during the sixteenth century. In turning over the leaves of Dr. Irving's 'Lives of Scottish Writers,' we have ourselves hit upon no less than thirty-three names of countrymen of our own, who during this time were professors in the Universities of France Germany, and Holland. It was into the hands, and not unfrequently into the houses, of these men, that a Scottish youth of those days naturally passed, when he had completed his course at the burgh or monastic school, and from their position they must have been eminently qualified not only to give him every information and assistance with reference to the course of study pursued at the Foreign School, but from being his countrymen, and consequently acquainted with the course of his previous training, they would be enabled to adapt their advice to the condition of his actual advancement.

The four existing universities of Scotland were founded as follows: St. Andrews in 1411, by Henry Ward Law, bishop of St. Andrews, and confirmed by Pope Benedict XIII. in 1413; Glasgow, by Pope Nicholas V, in 1450; Aberdeen, by Pope Alexander VI., in 1494; and Edinburgh, by James VI.,

in 1582.

In the First Book of Discipline a plan for the reorganization of the universities was set forth, which would have harmonized the conflicting claims of each, and put them all on to the special work for which each was best fitted.

In 1858, an act of Parliament was passed 'to make provision for the better government and discipline of the Universities of Scotland) and improving and regulating the course of study therein, and for the union to the two universities and colleges of Aberdeen.' By this act a Board of University Commissioners was appointed, with ample powers, and in the universities there is a uniform system of government and instruction-so that the present constitution of the University of Edinburgh, hereafter described, will answer as a type of the whole.

UNIVERSITY OF ST. ANDREWS.

(From McCrie's Life of Andrew Melville.)

The university of St. Andrews was the earliest, and continued long to be the most celebrated of Scotch academical institutions. For two centuries almost all the eminent men who appeared in this country were connected with it, either as teachers or pupils. A brief description of its constitution, the mode of instruction practiced in it, and the changes made on this, will convey a better idea of the state of our literature than any sketch which I could propose to give of the history of all the universities.

At the commencement of the fifteenth century, no great school existed in Scotland; and the youth who were desirous of a liberal education were under the necessity of seeking it abroad. The inconveniences arising from this were increased by the dissensions which the conflicting claims of the rival popes excited on the Continent. To remedy the evil, Henry Wardlow, Bishop of St. Andrews, with the consent of parliament, erected, in the year 1411, a General Study, or university, in the chief city of his diocese; and, two years after, the charter which he had granted was confirmed by a bull from Benedict XIII., whom the Scots then acknowledged as sovereign pontiff.

The university of St Andrews was formed on the model of those of Paris and Bologna, and enjoyed the same privileges. All its members, or supposts, as they were called, including the students who had attained the degree of bachelor as well as the masters, were divided into nations, according to the places from which they came. At a congregation or general meeting, they elected four procurators, who had a right to act for them in all causes in which their interests were concerned, and four intrants or electors, by whom the rector was chosen. The rector was the chief magistrate, and had authority to judge and pronounce sentence, with the advice and consent of his assessors,* in all causes, civil and criminal, relating to members of the university, with the exception of crimes which incurred the highest punishment. He had a right to repledge any member of the university who might be called before any other judge, civil or ecclesiastical; and in certain cases, those who did not belong to the university might be called before the rector's court, upon the complaint of a master or student. It is natural to suppose that the exercise of these powers would give occasion to a collision of author. ities; and, accordingly, a concordat was entered into, at an early period, between the university and the magistrates of the city, by which the limits of their jurisdictions were defined and adjusted. The university had the right of purchasing victuals free from custom, within the city and the regality of the abbey. It was also exempted from paying all other imposts and taxes, even those levied by the Estates, with the exception of what is called the great custom. Its members enjoyed immunity from the duties exacted for confirming testaments; and such of them as were clergymen, and possessed benefices with cure, were liberated by the papal bull from obligation to personal residence as long as they taught in the university. Besides its civil and criminal jurisdiction, the university possessed ecclesiastical powers, in the exercise of which it sometimes proceeded to excommunication. It may be mentioned as an evidence of the respect paid to literature, that, in consequence of a dispute which had arisen, it was determined that the Rector of the University should take precedence of the Prior of the Abbey in all public processions.

In general the university elected the assessors, and empowered the Rector to appoint his deputies. The number of assessors was twelve: three from ench nation.

†There is one instance of capital punishment being inflicted by the sentence of the rector of the university of Glasgow. Statist. Account of Scotland, vol. xxi. Append.

In a dispute which the rector and professors of theology in the university had with the masters of St. Salvators College about the power of conferring degrees, the former threatened the latter with ecclesiastical censures. The matter was settled by a provincial council held in 1470, in the way of the College consenting to renounce the right which they had acquired by a papal bull.

For the direction of its literary affairs, the members of the university were divided into faculties, according to the sciences that were taught. At the head of each of these was a dean, who presided at the meetings of the masters of his faculty for regulating the mode of study, and for examinations. The chancellor presided at meetings of the university for the conferring of degrees. It was long before medicine was taught, as a separate science, in our universities, and it does not appear that they were accustomed anciently to confer degrees in law. The branches taught were the arts of philosophy, canon law, and divinity.

However limited this course of education was, and however rude and imperfect the mode in which it was conducted, such an institution could not fail to produce effects favorable to the progress of knowledge. The erection of the university of St. Andrews may be regarded as marking the first dawn of learning in Scotland. Attracted by novelty, or animated by that thirst for knowledge which has always characterized Scotchmen, students came to St. Andrews from every part of the kingdom.

The university appears to have been possessed of very slender funds until the erection of colleges in it. The College of St. Salvator was founded by Bishop Kennedy in the year 1450; that of St. Leonard was founded by John Hepburn, the prior of the abbey, in the year 1512; and the erection of St. Marys, or the New College, was begun by Archbishop Beatoun in the year 1532, and completed by Archbishop Hamilton in the year 1552. Each of these was endowed with funds for the support of a certain number of professors and bursars. In the regulations of St. Marys College, we may observe the advancement which knowledge had already made, and the influence which it exerted over the minds of the popish prelates or their advisers.

A college has been compared to an incorporated trade within a burgh; but it bears a still more striking resemblance to a convent. The principal difference between them is, that the latter was an association entirely for religious purposes, whereas learning was the chief object of the former. The members of a college, like the monks, were bound to live, eat, and sleep in the same house, they were supported in common upon the goods of the college, and were astricted in all things to the will of the founder. A university, though a chartered body, was not under the same regulations, nor was the same provision made for its members. The college was within the university; the members of the former were also members of the latter, partook of its privileges, and were subject to its government.

Two things deserve notice as to the College of St. Leonard. In the first place, although it owed its erection to monks, was placed under their immediate superintendence, and taught constantly by persons taken from the convent, and although its original foundation and subsequent endowments were highly calculated to foster superstition,* yet the reformed opinions obtained an earlier and more extensive reception in this college than in the rest of the university. In the second place, this seminary had at first to struggle with great difficulties, on account of the slenderness of its funds; but, by the vigilance of its patrons, and the diligence of those who had the charge of education, it not only surmounted these, but attained great celebrity. So many of the sons of the nobility and gentry came to study at St. Leonards, that the name of the College of Poor Clerks, which the founder had originally given it, conveyed a very erroneous idea of those who resided within its walls.

The defense and increase of the Catholic faith was one declared object of the erection of all the colleges. This is more particularly expressed in the deeds founding and providing for the College of St. Mary. It was erected 'for defending and confirming the Catholic faith, that the Christian religion might flourish, the word of God might be more abundantly sown in the hearts of the faithful, and to oppose the heresies and schisms of the pestiferous heretics and

In 1525, John Archibald founded an altar in the College of Poor Students, to the honor of the blessed Virgin Mary, for the salvation of John Hepburn, prior of the monastery and all the canons, also for the souls of Mr. Michael Livingston, former vicar of Wemis, and of Sir Robert Wallis, former archdeacon of St. Andrews; also of the souls of his own father and mother, and his spouse, Margret Symsoun, and all his benefactors and friends.' The masters appear to have entertained notions of piety somewhat different from the above, when, in 1550, they ordained that the fines levied from absentees should, after growing to a round sum, be converted in vinum, ad refocillandos conversantium animos, et in alios pios usus,' Papers of University.

heresiarchs who, alas! have sprung up and flourished in these times, in this as well as in many other parts of the world.' Yet, within a short time after this language was held, these pestiferous heretics' prevailed against the Catholic faith, and obtained possession of the very places and funds which were destined for their suppression and extirpation. The Protestant sentiments had for many years been secretly spreading in all the colleges of St. Andrews, and they were now embraced by the greater part of the professors, with perhaps the excep tion of those of St. Salvators.

During the agitation of the religious controversy, the academical exercises were interrupted, and the number of students diminished. In the year 1559, the faculty of arts was under the necessity of superseding the public exhibitions usual at graduation. Several of the masters in St. Salvators, including William Cranston, the principal, adhered to the ancient religion, and left their places; but the greater part, if not the whole, of those belonging to the two other colleges, embraced the Reformation, and consequently retained their situations. John Douglas, afterwards Archbishop of St. Andrews, was at this time Principal of St. Mary's College, and John Duncanson of St. Leonards.

Everything connected with the Roman Catholic faith and worship, which was interwoven with the laws and practice of the university and of the colleges belonging to it, was removed at the establishment of the Reformation. Other alterations were at the same time contemplated by the reformers, but various causes prevented them from being carried into effect. Accordingly, the mode of teaching, and the academical exercises, so far as related to philosophy or the arts, continued nearly on their former footing.

All the scholars who entered at one time into a college formed a class, which was put under the government of a regent, with whom they continued four years. The regents had not, like the professors, permanent situations in the college. It would appear, that originally ev ry master of arts was bound to teach a class, and came under an engagement to this purpose at his laureation. Afterwards it became customary to grant dispensations from this duty. When the number of graduated persons had increased, and it became in other respects an object of importance to obtain a regency, those who were desirous of it presented a petition to the faculty, in which they professed their knowledge of the text of Aristotle, and requested permission to explain it, or, in other words, to govern a class. They were ordinarily bound to continue until they had taught two classes; but at St. Andrews, the greater part of the regents retained their situations, to which the profits from altarages or chaplainries were attached, until they obtained a living in the church or an office in the state. Though the regular time of the course was four years, it was usually finished in three years and a half. The session began on the first of October, and continued through the whole year, except the months of August and September, which were allowed as a vacation. The regent assembled his class three hours every day, and read and explained the books of Aristotle, which the students were bound to bring along with them. He began with dialectics or logic, then proceeded to ethics, next to physics, and concluded with metaphysics, which was called prima philosophia, or the highest branch of philosophy, and mathematics, which included arithmetic. During their course, the students were frequently employed in disputations and declamations, both privately in their class, and publicly before the college and the university. Besides seeing that the regents and students did their duty, the principal usually read public lectures on what were then reckoned the higher branches of philosophy, which were attended by all the students in the college, except those of the first year.*

▾ James Melville has left an account of the course of study followed by William Collace, who was his regent in St. Leonards, between 1570 and 1574. After stating that he began with teaching' Cassander's Rhetoric,' he adds: We hard the Oration pro rege Deitaro. Then he gaiff ws a compend of his awin of Philosopi and the part y'rof. We enterit in the organ of Arist. yt year, and leírnit to the Demonstrations.-The secund yeir of my course we hard the Demonstrations the Topiks, and the Sophist captiones. And the Primarius, Mr. James Wilkie, a guid peaceable sweet nuid man, wha luiffed me weill, teached the four species of the arithmetik and sum thing of the sphere-The third yeir of our course we hard the fyve buiks of the Ethsks, wt the aught buiks of the Physiks, and de ortu et interitu. That year we had our Bachelar act according to the solemnities then vsed of Declamations, banqueting, and playes -The fourt and last yeir of our course, quhilk was the 17 yeir of my age outpast and 18 rinning, we learned the buiks de cœlo and meteors, also the sphere more exactly teachit by our awin regent, and maid ws for our vicces and blackstons, and had at Pace our promotion and finishing of our course.'

In the middle of the third year of their course, such of the students as obtained an attestation of regular attendance and good behavior from their regent and the principal of their college, were admitted to enter on trials for the degree of bachelor. For this purpose the faculty chose every year three regents, one from each college, as examinators. In the presence of these the candidates determined* a question, in logic or morals, in a continued discourse, and answered such questions as were proposed to them on any of the branches which they had studied under their respective regents. The examinators made their report to the faculty, when such as had given satisfaction were confirmed as bachelors by the Dean, and the rest were sent to a lower class. The act of laureation at the end of the course was conducted in a similar manner. But on this occasion the candidates were examined on the whole circle of the arts, and bound to defend a thesis, which had been previously affixed to the gates of the different colleges. They were divided into circles, and their names arranged according to their merit, with a certain preference, however, to persons of rank. And the degree of master of arts was solemnly conferred on them by the chancellor of the university, in nomine Patris, Filii, et Spiritùs Sancti. The intermediate degree of licentiate of arts is recognized by the laws, but it was not separately conferred, at least in latter times. Both at receiving the degree of bachelor and master, the graduates paid certain sums of money, according to their rank, to the purse of the university and of the faculty, to the dean, and to their officers; and those who were poor obliged themselves to give what was due to the public funds as soon as they were in ability. By an old law, each student, including those who held bursaries, was bound to give to his regent annually, for three years, a Scots noble, which in later times was interpreted as answering to a pound Scots, 'salva cujuscunque uberiore liberalitate.'+

We can not form such an exact judgment respecting the ancient mode of teaching theology, as the Reformation necessarily made a greater change on this department of instruction. Many of the ancient forms, however, were still retained and observed. There continued to be a theological faculty, consisting of the doctors, licentiates, and bachelors of divinity, who resided within the university. They assembled, along with the students of divinity, annually on the first of October, when a sermon or oration, intended to excite the hearers to diligence in sacred studies, was delivered. The masters and bachelors then met apart, and arranged the subjects on which each should read them. The lectures were delivered on the Scriptures, which were divided into five parts; the Pentateuch or legal books, the historical books, the sapiential, the prophetical, and those of the New Testament. Formerly, under papacy, the students ascended to degrees in theology, by reading the sentences of Peter Lombard; but now, since the reformation of religion and the burial of popery, this practice is altered and reformed.' From the beginning of July to the end of September there was an intermission of the lectures; and during this interval, the students were exercised once a week in theological disputations, at which one of the masters presided, and the rest were present and took a share in the debate. The disputants were exhorted to avoid the altercation usually practiced in the schools, and not to bite and devour one another like dogs, but to behave as men desirous of mutual instruction, and as the servants of Christ, who ought not to strive but to be gentle to all.'

The lectures were chiefly delivered by those who were proceeding in their theological degrees. Before entering on this duty, it behooved them to have been students of divinity for three years, to have sustained the part of a respondent twice in the public disputes during the vacancies, to have given proof of their talents twice in the weekly exercise, and to have preached once in the vulgar language before the people, and in Latin before the university. After this, being admitted by the faculty, they taught for four years in the

From this act they were called Determinantes.

The designation pauper does not appear to have been always used in the same sense. In Feb., 1579, it was declared Solus bursarios et mendicos pauperes esse censendos.' But from other documents it appears that all the students of philosophy were divided into three classes; Primars or potentiores, Secondars or potentes, and Ternars, or minus potentes, olim pauperes :' and the latter paid dues, although proportionally smaller than the two former.

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