case, and not of elision, ought to follow the s in the plural, to distinguish it from the singular; as, sheep's, sheeps'.

OBS. 4.-The apostrophic's adds a syllable to the noun, when it will not unite with the sound in which the nominative ends; as, torch's, pronounced torchiz.

OBS. 5.-The apostrophe and 8 are sometimes added to mere characters, to denote plurality, and not the possessive case; as, Two a's-three b's-four 9's. In the following example, they are used to give the sound of a verbal termination to words that are not properly verbs: "When a man in a soliloquy reasons with himself, and pro's and con's, and weighs all his designs," &c.-Congreve.

The objective case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun, which usually denotes the object of a verb, participle, or preposition: as, I know the boy; he knows

me.

OBS. 1.-The object of a verb, participle, or preposition, is that which answers to whom or what after it; as, "I know the boy."-I know whom? The boy. Boy is therefore here in the objective case.

OBS. 2.-The nominative and the objective of nouns, are always alike in form, being distinguishable from each other only by their place in a sen tence, or their simple dependence according to the sense.

THE DECLENSION OF NOUNS.

The declension of a noun is a regular arrangement of its numbers and cases.

Thus:

ANALYSIS.

Analysis is the separation of a sentence into the parts which compose it.

Every sentence must contain two principal parts; namely, the subject and the predicate.

Whatever is directly spoken of in the sentence is the subject; as, "The sun has set."-"Can you write?"

That which is said of the subject is the predicate. In its simplest form it is always a verb; as, "Beauty fades." Any combination of the subject and predicate is called a proposition.

A simple sentence is one that contains only one proposition; as, "Fire burns."-"The truth will prevail."

Sentences are divided, with respect to the nature of the propositions which they contain, into four classes; declarative, interrogative, imperative, and exclamatory.

A sentence is declarative when it expresses an affirmation or negation; interrogative, when it expresses a question; imperative, when it expresses a command; and exclamatory, when it expresses an exclamation.

OBS. 1.-The predicate being always a verb, the subject of the sentence is the subject of the verb, as defined in Obs. page 52. The object of the verb, when the latter is the predicate of a sentence, may be treated as a distinct part of the sentence. It properly, however, modifies the verb, and is not a primary element of the sentence. In imperative sentences, the subject is the pronoun thou or you (understood). For the definition of the object of a verb, see Obs. 1, page 53.

OBS. 2.-There are sometimes used in connection with a sentence, words that form no part of its structure. Such words are said to be independent. A noun or a pronoun may be independent in various ways; as,

1. The name of a person or thing addressed; as, "John, when will you go?"-"O ye of little faith!"

2. The name of a person or thing which is the subject of an exclamation; as, "Alas, poor Yorick!"

3. An expletive word used merely to make the subject or object emphatic; as, "The Spring-she is a blessed thing!

troop shall overcome him."

Gad, a

Such nouns and pronouns, although independent in state, require the form of the nominative case, and therefore, in parsing, should be said to be in that case. Interjections are always independent.

EXERCISES IN ANALYSIS AND PARSING.

PRAXIS II.-ETYMOLOGICAL.

In the Second Praxis, it is required of the pupil-to state whether the sentence is declarative, interrogative, imperative,

or exclamatory; to analyze it by pointing out the subject, pred icate, and object; and to parse it by distinguishing the different parts of speech, and the classes and modifications of the

nouns.

Thus :

EXAMPLE ANALYZED AND PARSED.

"Columbus studied geography."

ANALYSIS. This is a simple declarative sentence. The subject is Columbus ¡ the predicate, studied; the object, geography.

PARSING.-Columbus is a proper noun, because it is the name of a particular individual; it is of the third person, because it is the name of a person spoken of; of the singular number, because it denotes but one; of the masculine gender, because it is the name of a male; and in the nominative case, because it is the subject of the verb studied.

Studied is a verb, because it signifies action.

Geography is a common noun, because it is the name of a thing sui generis; (see page 48). It is of the third person, because it is spoken of; of the singular number, because it denotes but one; of the neuter gender, because it is neither male nor female; and in the objective case, because it is the object of the verb studied.

Generosity makes friends. Can indolence bestow wealth? Despise meanness. Can man avoid errors? Does Eliza understand Italian? Love truth. Perseverance overcomes obstacles. What did you say ? Diligence deserves praise. It should be rewarded. Could he have avoided disgrace? Romulus founded Rome. Forgetfulness cures sorrow. Can liars respect themselves? Do they fear God? Birds sing. Cowards fear death. Sinners feel remorse. Has John returned? Time flies. Plants produce fruit. Observation increases knowledge. Mortal, prepare. Take warning, youth! Liberty, it has filed! Elec tricity causes lightning. Avarice extinguishes generosity. Integrity inspires confidence. Who can trust liars?

CHAPTER IV.—OF ADJECTIVES.

An Adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun, and generally expresses quality: as, A wise man; a new book. You two are diligent.

CLASSES.

Adjectives may be divided into six classes; namely, common, proper, numeral, pronominal, participial, and compound.

I. A common adjective is any ordinary epithet, or adjective denoting quality or situation; as, Good, bad, peaceful, warlike-eastern, western, outer, inner.

II. A proper adjective is one that is formed from a proper name; as, American, English, Platonic.

III. A numeral adjective is one that expresses a definite number; as, One, two, three, four, five, six, &c.

IV. A pronominal adjective is a definitive word which may either accompany its noun, or represent it understood; as, "All join to guard what each desires to gain." -Pope. That is, All men join to guard what each man desires to gain.

V. A participial adjective is one that has the form of a participle, but differs from it by rejecting the idea of time; as, An amusing story.

VI. A compound adjective, is one that consists of two or more words joined together; as, Nut-brown, laughterloving, four-footed.

OBS. 1.-Numeral adjectives are of three kinds: namely,

1. Cardinal; as, One, two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, nine, ten, eleven, twelve, thirteen, fourteen, fifteen, &c.

2. Ordinal; as, First, second, third, fourth, fifth, sixth, seventh, eighth, ninth, tenth, eleventh, twelfth, thirteenth, &c.

3. Multiplicative; as, Single or alone, double or twofold, triple or threefold, quadruple or fourfold, quintuple or fivefold, sextuple or sixfold, septuple or sevenfold, octuple or eightfold, &c.

OBS. 2.-Compound adjectives, being formed at pleasure, are very numerous and various. Many of them embrace numerals, and run on in a series; as, one-leaved, two-leaved, three-leaved, four-leaved, &c.

MODIFICATIONS.

Adjectives have, commonly, no modifications but the forms of comparison.

Comparison is a variation of the adjective to express quality in different degrees; as, hard, harder, hardest. There are three degrees of comparison; the positive, the comparative, and the superlative.

The positive degree is that which is expressed by the adjective in its simple form; as, hard, soft, good.

The comparative degree is that which exceeds the pos. itive; as, harder, softer, better.

The superlative degree is that which is not exceeded; as, hardest, softest, best.

Those adjectives whose signification does not admit of

different degrees, cannot be compared; as, two, second, all, total, immortal, infinite.

Those adjectives which may be varied in sense, but not in form, are compared by means of adverbs; as, skillful, more skillful, most skillful—skillful, less skillful, least skillful.

REGULAR COMPARISON.

Adjectives are regularly compared, when the comparative degree is expressed by adding er, and the superlative, by add ing est to them; as.

The regular method of comparison is chiefly applicable to monosyllables, and to dissyllables ending in y or mute e.

COMPARISON BY ADVERBS.

The different degrees of a quality may also be expressed, with precisely the same import, by prefixing to the adjective the adverbs more and most: as, wise, more wise, most wise; famous, more famous, most famous; amiable, more amiable, most amiable.

The degrees of diminution are expressed, in like manner, by the adverbs less and least: as, wise, less wise, least wise; famous, less famous, least famous; amiable, less amiable, least amiable.

OBS. 1.-Adjectives of more than one syllable, except dissyllables ending in y or mute e, rarely admit a change of termination, but are rather compared by means of the adverbs: thus we say, virtuous, more virtuous, most virtuous; but not virtuous, virtuouser, virtuousest.

OBS. 2.-The prefixing of an adverb can hardly be called a variation of the adjective; the words may with more propriety be parsed separately, the degree being ascribed to the adverb or, if you please, to both words; for both are varied in sense by the inflection of the former.

OBS. 3.-The degrees in which qualities may exist in nature, are infinitely various; ; but the only degrees with which the grammarian is concerned, are those which our variation of the adjective or adverb enables us to express. Whenever the adjective itself denotes these degrees, they properly belong to it; as, worthy, worthier, worthiest. If an adverb is employed for this purpose, that also is compared, and the two degrees formed are properly its own; as, worthy, more worthy, most worthy. But these same degrees may be other wise expressed; as, worthy, in a higher degree worthy, in the highest degree worthy. Here also the adjective worthy is virtually compared as before; but only the adjective high is grammatically modified. Many grammarians have erroneously parsed the adverbs more and most, less and least, as parts of the adjective.

* See Rules for Spelling III. and VI.