IRREGULAR COMPARISON. The following adjectives are compared irregularly: good, better, best; bad or ill, worse, worst; little, less, least; much, more, most; many, more, most. OBS. 1.-In English, and also in Latin, most adjectives that denote place or situation, not only form the superlative irregularly, but are also either redundant or defective in comparison. Thus : I. The following nine have more than one superlative: far, farther, farthest, furmost or farthermost; near, nearer, nearest or next; fore, former, foremost or first; hind, hinder, hindmost or hindermost; in, inner, inmost or innermost; out, outer or utter, outmost or utmost, outermost or uttermost; up, upper, upmost or uppermost; low, lower, lowest or lowermost; late, later, or latter, latest or last. II. The following five want the positive: [aft, adv.,] after, aftmost, or af termost; forth, adv.,] further, furthest or furthermost; hither, hithermost; nether, nethermost; under, undermost. III. The following want the comparative: front, frontmost; rear, rearmost; head, headmost; end, endmost; top, topmost; bottom, bottommost; mid or middle, midst, midmost or middlemost; north, northmost; south, southmost; northern, northernmost; southern, southernmost; eastern, easternmost; western, westernmost. OBS. 2.-Many of these irregular adjectives are also in common use, as nouns, adverbs, or prepositions; the sense in which they are employed will show to what class they belong. OBS. 3.-The words fore and hind, front and rear, head and end, right and left, in and out, high and low, top and bottom, up and down, upper and under, mid and after, are often joined in composition with other words; and some of them, when used as adjectives of place, are rarely separated from their nouns; as, in-land, mid-sea, after-ages, &c. OBS. 4.-It may be remarked of the comparatives, former and latter or hinder, upper and under or nether, inner and outer or utter, after and hither; as well as of the Latin superior and inferior, anterior and posterior, interior and exterior, prior and ulterior, senior and junior, major and minor; that they cannot, like other comparatives, be construed with the conjunction than, introdcuing the latter term of comparison; for we never say, one thing is former, superior, &c., THAN an other. OBS. 5.-Common adjectives, or epithets denoting quality, are more numerous than all the other classes put together. Many of these, and a few that are pronominal, may be varied by comparison; and some participial adjectives may be compared by means of the adverbs. But adjectives formed from proper names, all the numerals, and most of the compounds, are in no way susceptible of comparison. OBS. 6. Nouns are often used as adjectives; as, An iron bar—An evening school-A mahogany chair-A South-Sea dream. These also are incapable of comparison. OBS. 7.-The numerals are often used as nouns; and, as such, are regularly declined; as, Such a one-One's own self-The little ones- -By tens-For twenty's sake-By fifties-Two millions. OBS. 8.-Comparatives, and the word other, are sometimes also employed as nouns, and have the regular declension; as, Our superiors-His betters— The elder's advice-An* other's wo-Let others do as they will. But, as adjectives, these words are invariable. OBS. 9.-Pronominal adjectives, when their nouns are expressed, simply relate to them, and have no modifications: except this and that, which form There seems to be no good reason for joining an and other. An here excludes any other article; and analogy and consistency require that the words be separated. Their union has led sometimes to an improper repetition of the article; as, 'Another such a man,'-for, An other such man.' the plural these and those; and much, many, and a few others, which are compared. OBS. 10.-Pronominal adjectives, when their nouns are not expressed, may be parsed as representing them in person, number, gender, and case: but those who prefer it, may supply the ellipsis, and parse the adjective simply as an adjective. OBS. 11.-The following are the principal pronominal adjectives: All, any, both, certain, divers, each, either, else, enough, every, few, former, first, latter, last, little, less, least, much, many, more, most, neither, no or none, one, only, other, own, same, several, some, such, this, that, these, those, which, what." OBS. 12.- Which and what, when they are not prefixed to nouns, are, for the most part, relative or interrogative pronouns. ANALYSIS Words, added to any other word in the sentence to modify or limit its meaning, are called adjuncts. Adjuncts are sometimes called modifications. They are divided into two classes, primary and secondary adjuncts. Primary adjuncts are those added directly to either of the principal parts; as," Good books always deserve a careful perusal." Secondary adjuncts are those added to other adjuncts; as, "Suddenly acquired wealth very rarely brings happi ness. Adjuncts are divided, with respect to their office, into three classes; namely, adjective, adverbial, and explanatory. An adjective adjunct is one used to modify or limit a noun or a pronoun; as, "Both those bad boys deserve severe punishment.' An adverbial adjunct is one used like an adverb; as, "Remember now thy Creator in the days of thy youth." An explanatory adjunct is one used to explain a preeding noun or pronoun; as, "The emperor Napoleon was banished." We, the people, ordain this constitution." 66 The subject or the object in a sentence, may be modified by adjective or explanatory adjuncts of various forms; as, No and none seem to be only different forms of the same adjective; the former being used before a noun expressed, and the latter when the noun is understood, or not placed after the adjective; as. "For none of us liveth to himself, and no man dieth to himself."-Romans, xiv, 7. 1. By an article or an adjective; as, "The diligent scholar improves." 2. By a noun or pronoun in the possessive case; as, William's sister has lost her book." 3. By a verb used as an adjective; as, excel is laudable." "The desire to 4. By a preposition and its object, used together as an adjective; as, "A man of integrity obeys the dictates of conscience." 5. By a noun or pronoun used as an explanatory adjunct; as, "His brother, Charles, is idle." The predicate of a sentence may be modified by adverbial adjuncts of various forms; as, 1. By an adverb; as, "The sun shines brightly." 2. By a preposition and its object, used together as an adverb; as, "He came from Boston." EXERCISES IN ANALYSIS AND PARSING. PRAXIS III.-ETYMOLOGICAL. In the Third Praxis, it is required of the pupil-to classify and analyze the sentence as in the preceding praxis; to point out, in addition, the adjuncts of each of the principal parts, and distinguish their classes; and to parse the sentence by distinguishing the different parts of speech, and the classes and modifications of the nouns, and adjectives, distinguishing also the article as definite or indefinite. Thus: EXAMPLE ANALYZED AND PARSED. "The Athenians carefully observed Solon's wise laws.” ANALYSIS.-This is a simple declarative sentence. The subject is Athenians; the predicate, observed; the object, laws. The subject is limited by the adjective adjunct, the; the predicate is modi fied by the adverbial adjunct, carefully; and the object is modified by the adjective adjuncts, Solon's and wise. PARSING.-The is the definite article, because it limits the noun Athenians. Athenians is a proper noun, because it is the name of a particular people. (Modifications as in the preceding praxis.) Carefully is an adverb, because it is added to the verb observed, and expresses manner. Observed is a verb, because it expresses action. Solon's is a proper noun, because it is the name of a particular individual; it is of the third person, singular number, masculine gender, and in the possessive case, because it indicates the possession of laws. Wise is a common adjective, because it simply expresses the quality of laws. Laws is a common noun, because it is the name of a class of things. Pleasure's call always wins an eager attention. Every person highly praised William's noble conduct. This benevolent young lady kindly teaches many poor children. Charles's resignation filled all Europe with astonishment. The beautiful prospects of nature always excite the warmest admiration of mankind. The powerful eloquence of Demosthenes excited the fierce indignation of Athens against Philip of Macedon. CHAPTER V.-OF PRONOUNS. A Pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun: as, The boy loves his book; he has long lessons, and he learns them well. OBS. 1.-The word for which a pronoun stands, is called its antecedent, because it usually precedes the pronoun. But some have limited the term antecedent, to the word represented by a relative. OBS. 2. The pronouns I and thou in their different modifications, stand immediately for persons that are, in general, sufficiently known without being named; (I meaning the speaker, and thou the hearer;) their antecedents are therefore generally understood. OBS. 3.-The other personal pronouns are sometimes taken in a general or absolute sense, to denote persons or things not previously mentioned; as, "He that hath knowledge, spareth his words." OBS. 4.-A pronoun with which a question is asked, stands for some person or thing unknown to the speaker; the noun, therefore, cannot occur before it, but may be used after it or instead of it. OBS. 5.-The personal and the interrogative pronouns often stand in construction as the antecedents to other pronouns; as, He that arms his intent with virtue is invincible."-"Who that has any moral sense, dares tell lies?" CLASSES. Pronouns are divided into three classes; personal, relative, and interrogative. I. A personal pronoun is a pronoun that shows, by its form, of what person it is. The simple personal pronouns are five: namely, I, of the first person; thou, of the second person; he, she, and it, of the third person. The compound personal pronouns are also five: namely, myself, of the first person; thyself, of the second person; himself, herself, and itself, of the third person. II. A relative pronoun is a pronoun that represents an antecedent word or phrase, and connects different clauses of a sentence. The relative pronouns are who, which, what, and that; and the compounds whoever or whosoever, whichever or whichsoever, whatever or whatsoever. What is a kind of double relative, equivalent to that or those which; and is to be parsed, first as antecedent, and then as relative. III. An interrogative pronoun is a pronoun with which a question is asked. The interrogative pronouns are who, which, and what; being the same in form as relatives. OBS 1.- Who is usually applied to persons only; which, though formerly applied to persons, is now confined to animals and inanimate things. what (as a mere pronoun) is applied to things only: that is applied indifferently to persons, animals, or things. OBS. 2. The pronoun what has a twofold relation, and is often used (by ellipsis of the noun) both as antecedent and relative, being equivalent to that which, or the thing which. In this double relation, what represents two cases at the same time: as, "He is ashamed of what he has done;" that is, of that [thing] which he has done. It is usually of the singular number, though sometimes plural; as, "I must turn to the faults, or what appear such to me."-Byron. "All distortions and mimicries, as such, are what raise aversion in stead of pleasure.-Steele. OBS. 3.-What is sometimes used both as an adjective and a relative at the "What same time, and is placed before the noun which it represents: as, money we had was taken away;" that is, All the money that we had, &c. "What man but enters, dies;" that is, Any man who, &c. "What god but enters yon forbidden field."-Pope. Indeed, it does not admit of being construed after a noun, as a simple relative. The compound whatever or whatsoever has the same peculiarities of construction; as, We will certainly do whatsoever thing goeth forth out of our own mouth."-Jer., xliv, 17. OBS. 4.-Who, which, and what, when the affix ever or soever is added, have an unlimited signification; and, as some general term, such as any person, or any thing, is usually employed as the antecedent, they are all commonly followed by two verbs: as," Whoever attends, will improve;" that is, Any person who attends, will improve. In parsing, supply the antecedent. OBS. 5.- Which and what are often prefixed to nouns as definitive or interrogative adjectives; and, as such, may be applied to persons as well as to things: as, "What man?"—" Which boy ?* OBS. 6. The word that is a relative pronoun, when it is equivalent to who, whom, or which; as, "The days that [which] are past, are gone forever." It is a definitive or pronominal adjective, when it relates to a noun expressed or understood after it; as, "That book is new." In other cases, it is a conjunction, as, "Live well, that you may die well." OBS. 7.-The relative that has this peculiarity, that it cannot follow the word on which its case depends: thus, it is said, [John, xiii, 29,] Buy |