billion and a half of readily preventable waste in this country, provided due care were paid to health. Aside from the question of the prolongation of life and the direct loss from illness should be added the sum lost from undue fatigues and minor ailments that do not require the care of a physician but which do lessen decidedly the efficiency of work. The same careful observer places this loss at not less than $500,000,000. The total preventable loss from death and disease and minor ailments would be not less than $2,000,000,000 annually and is probably two or three times as much. (b) Remedies. With these facts and conservative estimates before us, we see how extremely important it is that our schools teach hygiene for the individual in order that through the increased efficiency coming from good health and the added length of the period of efficiency coming from long life of the individual the State may be benefited.

Beyond this care which the individual may be trained to take of his own health, however, is the great advantage to be secured from the specialized training which leads to effective sanitary measures enforced by the state authorities, an enforcement which can be made much more efficient through the hearty coöperation of the citizens trained to know the need of sanitary measures and willing themselves to submit to any personal discomfort that may be required for their enforcement.

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2. Mental Development. — (a) Enjoyment.Next in importance to physical health is the development of one's mental equipment and capacities so as to enrich life. The wider the range of sympathy and taste, the more numerous are the opportunities for the gratification of normal healthful desires and the more frequent and deep the satisfaction. The man who walks through the woods and fields with eyes unopened to the beauties of nature about him, by his knowledge of the nature and process of development of plant and animal life loses almost all of the gratification and satisfaction that comes to him who sees not merely with his eyes but with his understanding. To the man unskilled, untrained in music, the works of the greatest musicians fall on ears that hear not. To the person whose literary taste remains uncultivated, the greatest masters of literature often bring no message more important than that given by the ignorant, sensational reporter of the cheap daily press. Many of the greatest satisfactions in life must come from the education that has awakened desires, trained tastes, and thus prepared one's nature for understanding and enjoyment in fields otherwise not accessible.

Part of the training of the schools is not primarily for personal training, but to furnish tools for further investigation and the means of getting a clearer vision of other fields of learning. A knowledge of languages gives one access to the literature and science of other peoples.

Arithmetic and most of the other forms of mathematical learning are keys by which are unlocked the treasure houses of astronomy and physics, and are the tools by which the engineers plan their bridges and factories; while painting and drawing furnish a means of conveying ideas more vividly and accurately than the spoken word.

(b) Service. From the social viewpoint, mental training gives one the ability to be useful in society. The skill in craftsmanship of the carpenter and mason and designer is put at the service of the individuals largely to enable them to gratify their social instincts. Our houses furnish not merely shelter for the individual, but also opportunities for bringing one's self into more intimate and more helpful touch with one's fellows. The training given to the artist, to the orator, to the teacher, and the statesman serves not merely as a means of personal gratification, but, what is of still greater importance, as a means by which these promoters of civilization may so work upon their fellows as often to remold or even recreate society.

3. Moral and Religious Development. (a) The Sense of Public Duty. Perhaps the basis of moral action most generally accepted as a test by thinking men is the good of society. Whatever action tends toward the social welfare is good. Whatever action tends toward the injury or weakening of society is an evil. It becomes, then, the task of the educator to instil into the nature of the young, the spirit of obligation to the State and to society, the idea of social duty. Only when the mass of the citizens stand ready to place their obligations toward the State before all other obligations, those to self, to family, to friends, do we find the best State, whatever its form of government. This sense of obligation toward the State is very generally felt in all civilized communities in times of stress and danger. There is little difficulty in time of war in any nation in securing recruits for the service of armies. The citizens almost to a man stand ready on such occasions to assume the hardships and dangers and sacrifices of military life for the good of the State.

The danger to the State from lack of this sense of public duty is felt not in times of war, but in times of peace. Men who would not hesitate to risk their lives for their country will often thoughtlessly fail to realize their duties of voting or of service on juries or other kinds of the routine work of citizenship, and in their carelessness they often selfishly sacrifice the good of the State to their private interests.

(b) Joy of Service. If the training of the youth has been satisfactory, the man not only will feel his duty toward the State, but he will find satisfaction in the opportunity of unselfish service to the State. That only "by toil and tribulation are the ideals of life reached" must not seem too much a hardship. In social as well

as in personal relations the essence of devotion is not merely the willingness to render service, but to sacrifice if need be. Service which does not include some element of sacrifice fails often to accomplish the best for the doer even in enjoyment. It should therefore be the aim of the schools to put into the pupil, as far as possible, not merely the sense of obligation to the State, but also the desire to render glad service to society, even though at the cost of great personal sacrifice.

If a

II. ADAPTATION OF THE CURRICULUM. teacher is himself imbued with the spirit of patriotism and the desire to render service to the community of which he is a member, he will have little difficulty in finding material for turning the minds of his pupils in the same direction in many, and perhaps in all, of the studies in the curriculum. And yet of course some subjects contribute more easily to this result than do others. All can be made to help in bridging over the "gap between school and life"; the school must become a real part of life.

1. Physical Development. (a) Hygiene. Pupils should certainly be taught in even the early grades the most important simple facts regarding the care of their bodies: the importance of cleanliness, of food suitable in kind and quantity for their needs, the injuries to which they are liable from wrong habits of clothing, the advantages of proper exercise, and the best methods of securing the good effects of the proper use and of avoiding the abuse of narcotics and stimulants. The essential facts regarding the sexual relations and other information bearing directly upon their physical welfare now often withheld, should be given them simply and directly as far as possible before wrong habits of living have become firmly fixed. Beyond the mere information, however, it is desirable that so far as possible the pupils be themselves directly trained and prepared in many ways. Perhaps especially in the lower grades certain forms of exercises that are in themselves interesting, such as marching, dancing, the playing of games that will serve to train not merely their muscles but also to stimulate the spirit of joyousness in their work and play can be given them. Especial care can also be taken in many cases by means of walks and talks and observations upon nature to put the pupils unconsciously into condition for healthy physical development.

(b) Sanitation. Quite early also in the school course can be given the elements of instruction that bear directly upon public service. The need of submission to public regulations regarding quarantine in the case of contagious diseases, the desirability of vaccination not merely for personal protection but for the protection of the community, the need of an adequate and pure water supply, and similar subjects can all be explained in such a way as to impress upon the pupils the unselfish character of the best citizenship, while still further dis

cussions regarding the need of taxes to be levied upon the individuals for the establishment of water works, for the upbuilding of a school system, for the making of better roads, can all serve to emphasize the solidarity of interests in the community and the need of sacrifice on the part of the individual to promote the public welfare.

2. Mental Training. — (a) Personal culture in the studies already mentioned that serve primarily to develop in the pupil new tastes and desires that will tend in later life toward enrichment of living will furnish also the opportunities for inculcating lessons of the higher citizenship. If geography is taught as a study of the earth's surface in its relations to society, the right attitude will normally be assumed. The water courses, in their various ramifications from the mountain rivulet to the broad river alive with vessels carrying the commerce of the nation, will be not merely water flowing through the land, but will become nature's agents watering the lands to make them fertile to supply men's needs, and the means by which through commerce men come into close personal touch one with another so as to satisfy not only physical needs, but also to spread the means of culture and enjoyment from one community to another throughout the land. The beauties of Alpine scenery, the magnificence of Niagara, the awe-inspiring spectacle of a tornado or a storm at sea, have significance for us only in their relations to society and their benefit or injury to mankind.

The study of history or civics or literature should be conducted primarily with reference to the lessons that can be drawn regarding the acts and the motives that have led to benefits to others or to the injury of society, in order that by way of example or of warning the pupils may be led to see the usefulness of history or literature or the study of government toward helping them shape their own ambitions and the plans for their lifework. Even music and art and science, approached from this point of view instead of merely from the viewpoint of physical nature, take on new meanings that make for citizenship.

(b) This same element of service may likewise be brought out, although perhaps not so simply or directly, in the study of languages, the elements of mathematics, of chemistry, of physics, that in themselves do not serve primarily toward the satisfaction of a personal desire for the awakening of a new taste, but rather as tools for further study or for the acquirement of a skill that will enable one to render better service. When the study of electricity leads to the establishment of the telegraph and of the telephone, or the knowledge of a foreign language enables one to get into personal touch with other races, or the knowledge of mathematics is thought of as the necessary equipment for planning buildings and bridges and railroads to serve human needs, these subjects likewise

assume a meaning for society that at first may not appear.

This is perhaps on the whole the best use of manual training if properly taught. While it serves to give the body exercise and thus to protect the health, while it gives to the hand and eye the training that makes for mental development, it also has a direct aspect of service found in few studies. If a pupil makes a workbox for his mother or a chair for the house or a sled for himself, he sees at once the usefulness of his work for helping others, and that is directly a training for citizenship. Perhaps, too, in no other way can the parents of the pupils who are poor be brought so directly into touch with the schools as through this work. Many children are taken from school to earn money for their parents. If they are learning in the schools skill that seems to have a money-making bearing, whether it be in carpentry or cooking, the parents may well be more ready to leave their children in school for two or three years longer than if their work seems unpractical because non-money-making. The social aspect of manual training is perhaps its chief element of value.

3. Moral Development. In addition to the mental understanding of the social bearings of the studies taken up in the schools, the pupil should acquire as far as possible the spirit which will lead him to be ready to make a sacrifice cheerfully for the good of others. No material change can be made in the subjects of the curriculum that will bring about this result, though some little direct work in moral training might be given. If it is to be reached at all, it will come about primarily through the personality of the teacher and his ability to show the interdependence of human beings one upon the other, the opportunities for service, and the lessons taught by the feelings of the world toward those who have rendered service. This spirit of service may then normally be taken as an ideal toward the attainment of which one may wish to strive.

Moreover, besides this attitude toward one's obligations, there may be given in many instances an opportunity for the practice of citizenship. Habits of courtesy toward teacher and fellow pupils, consideration for the rights and happiness of others, team work, and the administrative subordination that inevitably comes from such work in play or school, attention toward keeping the buildings and school grounds and streets neat and orderly for the public good, even at times the direct practice of some philanthropic service, may well place the pupils far on the way toward the better citizenship. Of course the higher pupils can be given information regarding the form of government, not merely through books, but by visiting meetings of the city councils, noting the work of the nominating conventions or caucuses, seeing how the voter casts his ballot, observing the work of the mayor, the super

intendent of streets, and other public officials, and by other methods that will serve to show some of the more public duties of the citizen. For older pupils the same lessons can be taught through the form of school government, the school city, or some similar device. But the most essential point is not the form but the spirit the attitude of the citizen toward life and toward his fellow-men. Practically every study of the curriculum can call the pupils' attention in that direction, but only the personal influence of those whom the pupils recognize as having natures wiser and stronger and better than their own, with the opportunities for acquiring habits of service, can go far toward inculcating this spirit of personal sacrifice for the public good. With this personal influence the teacher may go far toward building up in the students not only the ideals, but also the practice of citizenship. J. W. J. References:

CABOT, ELLA LYMAN. Everyday Ethics. (New York, 1906.)

CRAFTS, WILBUR F. Practical Christian Sociology. (New York, 1907.)

DEWEY, JOHN. School and Society. (Chicago, 1900.) EARP, EDWIN L. Social Aspects of Religious Institutions. (New York, 1908.)

GIDDINGS, FRANKLIN H. Elements of Sociology. (New York, 1909.)

HADLEY, ARTHUR T.

(New York, 1902.) JENKS, JEREMIAH W.

(New York, 1906.)

Standards of Public Morality.

Citizenship and the Schools.

4500 or that of 2000. Yet, according to the modern official standards of classification, the concentration of a few thousands of persons entitles to the designation of city as much as tens of thousands, or hundreds of thousands, or thousands of thousands. While differences in numbers alone render difficult either accurate description or definite generalizations of municipal organization and function, differences in physical and industrial environment, and in the moral, intellectual, and sociological character of populations are factors of even greater importance in defining the organized political and social activity of the modern city. Especially important are these factors in qualifying the relations of the city in the performance of its functions as regards education. Due consideration must also be accorded the different legal positions assigned to the city in the several

states.

By common usage the term "school administration" has come to comprehend the entire range of operation of the controlling and directive agencies, as well as the form of organization, of public education. Not only is it employed to signify those features of school control which may be properly classified as administrative, but also those which relate to supervision, inspection, and management. Even though the lines of distinction between these several features are not always easily determined, each to a greater or less degree denotes a particular class of activities, the essential and specific characteristics of which are being more generally recognized. With these limitations, "city school administration" will be assumed here to include a generalized description of the means and methods for the organized control of public education under typical urban conditions.

The form, character, and manner of operation of the administration of public education in American municipalities are the composite results of five principal influences: (a) the American social theory of education as a function of the State, (b) the political relationship of the American city to the American state, (c) the democratic ideal of civic and institutional control, (d) the urbanization of population, especially during the last quarter of a century, (e) the extension and development of the function of public education.

In theory, as well as in practice, public education in the United States is considered as a direct function of the individual states. The educational system, however differentiated, and to whatever extent adapted to meet special conditions, is organized with the state as an independent and dominant administrative unit. Local areas of administration (district, township, county, city), to the extent that they are in immediate relation to the public school, are considered as but agents of the state in carrying out the state policy. All special and higher institutions for public edu

cation are normally held to occupy a similar position. This doctrine has been incorporated to such an extent in the fundamental and statutory law of the different states, and has been enunciated so frequently by the highest courts, as to become one of the fundamental principles of American educational control. Education is a matter of concern to the people of the state as a whole, and is not one primarily for the satisfaction of local needs. Obviously and naturally, this principle has operated as an exceedingly important factor in the development of municipal systems of public schools.

The marked tendency in government for the last three or four decades has been to bring the city more and more within the direct administrative control of the state. The city could not, if it would, live unto itself alone. Every city is a potent influence upon the political, economic, and cultural standards of its environment; and more and more the welfare of the city is reflected in the welfare of the state, as a greater and greater proportion of the population of the state becomes concentrated within urban communities. The original nominal legislative control which the state formerly exercised over the city has been and continues to be transformed into administrative control more or less direct. The state has succeeded in obtaining a double hold upon the city in so far as education is concerned, one through the state organization of the public school system, and one through the subordination of the city in the exercise of its functions as an agency for government.

Nevertheless, the problems of government of the city are radically different from those in nonurban areas. The methods and governmental devices of the latter are not suited to the conditions of the city. Hence the state has been compelled by the force of circumstances to legislate with reference to the peculiar and particular needs of urban populations. The political problem of American educational control has been to develop a high degree of efficiency in the public school system, and at the same time preserve to the people of local communities such a degree of autonomy and freedom for participation as will encourage initiative and fix responsibility. To keep the public educational system of the city democratic and at the same time safeguard it from inefficiency; to preserve it from state bureaucracy, and at the same time protect it from exploitation by party and partisan political influences, represent the constant problems of city school administration. The experiences of American cities have demonstrated beyond a single doubt that only through nonpartisanship of control is effective and disinterested school administration possible. The public school is for and of no class, and therefore citizenship, without reference to political affiliation, economic conditions, cultural standards, religious belief, or sex, should provide not only

ample opportunities for participating in the government of the school, but also responsibilities for such participation.

The problems of municipal government, in a large measure similar under all circumstances, differ widely. The metropolitan city is comparable to the city of a few thousands only in minor particulars. The rapidly expanding and changing urban community contains factors which are not to be found in an older and slower growing community. All in all, it may be said that the majority of the problems of school control pressing for solution at the present time are due in a large degree to the concentration of a diverse population within comparatively small areas and the consequent necessary adaptation to newer economic, physical, moral, and cultural conditions. The rapidity alone with which population has become aggregated in cities (for those of 8000 and over the proportion of the total population rose from 12.5 per cent in 1850 to 16.1 per cent in 1860, to 20.9 per cent in 1870, to 22.6 per cent in 1880, to 29.2 per cent in 1890, to 33.1 per cent in 1900, and to over 40 per cent in 1910) would make necessary a reconstruction of the foundations of municipal social control. Democracy in government receives its first real test in the modern city, and ingenuity for popular government is taxed to the utmost to supply the devices which shall permit the city and efficiency to be developed side by side.

The final determining factor of the municipal school control arises from the large extension and rapid increase in the number of activities of the public school system. Kindergartens, elementary schools, secondary schools of different sorts, playgrounds, night and continuation schools, evening lectures and schools for adults, higher and professional institutions, schools for defectives, dependents, and delinquents are typical of the grades and institutions of education that already belong to the school systems of the larger and more progressive municipalities. Free textbooks and supplies are followed by a proposition for free meals; compulsory attendance laws and child labor prohibitions by demands for school scholarships. Each new educational activity means the assumption of additional municipal responsibility and the presentation of new complications for school administration.

General Organization and Administration. Boards. - The relation and special powers of the city in the performance of its functions pertaining to education are defined by the general provisions of the state law governing the public school system, or by the special provisions of the municipal charter. The chief authority for the direct control of public education is a body of citizens known variously as the board of education, school board, school committee, board of school directors, board of school trustees, board of public education,

board of public schools, board of inspectors, board of school controllers, or board of school commissioners. The term "board of education" is most generally used, although for numerous reasons the term "board of school control" is to be preferred. Depending upon the relations borne to the municipal government, the school systems of American cities may be divided into two general classes, the departmental and the autonomous. To the first class belong those which are considered as departments of the city government; to the second class belong those possessing corporate existence separate and apart from the municipal corporation. In but one city of importance (Buffalo) are the public schools under the immediate and exclusive control of the general governing authority of the city (city council). In this city a special committee of the members of the council acts as a board of education.

Two principal methods obtain for the selection and appointment of boards of education, popular election and appointment. Seventy

five of the 100 chief cities of the country choose members of the board by popular election, either from wards or districts (Detroit, Louisville, Providence, Salt Lake City), or at large (St. Louis, Boston, Cleveland, Minneapolis, Indianapolis, Kansas City, Denver, Seattle). The method of election by the people obtains in nearly all cases of autonomous organization, i.e. where the school corporation is largely independent of the municipal corporation. In 16 of the chief cities, the members of the board are appointed, generally by the mayor, with or without confirmation by the council and from the city at large or by wards (New York City, Baltimore, Chicago, San Francisco, New Haven). In Philadelphia the members of the board are appointed by the judge of the court of common pleas, and in Washington by the Commissioners of the District of Columbia. Nine cities have some special method of selection, such as Buffalo, previously mentioned; Charleston (S.C.), 6 of the 10 members elected and 4 appointed by the governor of the state; Savannah (S.C.), 9 of the 12 members selfperpetuating, and 3 chosen by the mayor; Pittsburg, 45 members elected by local boards, existing in each of the districts into which the city is divided; New Orleans, 12 members appointed by city council and 8 by the governor. In a number of cities having the departmental form of organization the mayor or some other representative of the municipal government is a member er officio of the board.

The number of members composing the board varies greatly, from 3 in Troy (N.Y.), Albany (N.Y.), and Fort Wayne (Ind.) to 45 in Pittsburg, 46 in New York, and 90 in Allegheny (Pa.). At the present time 56 boards of the 100 largest cities of the country have 9 or less members, 25 have 10 to 15 members, 15 have 16 to 20 members, and 4 have 30 or more members. There has been a marked tendency in