different periodicals, and published an edition of the New Testament in paragraph form, and, beside numerous pamphlets, sermons, and occasional addresses, the following works: "Floating Flowers from a Hidden Brook" (Philadelphia, 1844); “The Bible Alliance" (Cincinnati, 1850); "Sermons for the People" (Pittsburg, 1854); "The Blessing" (Philadelphia, 1857); "Stand up for Jesus" (1858); "Poems, with Autobiographic and other Notes" (1861); and "The Peerless Magnificence of the Word of God" (1862).

STODDARD, a S. E. co. of Missouri, bordering on Arkansas, and bounded W. by the St. Francis and E. by the Castor and Whitewater rivers; area, 900 sq. m.; pop. in 1860, 7,877, of whom 215 were slaves. The greater portion of the county is level, and there are a number of swamps and shallow lakes, the principal of the latter being Lake Nicormy, 25 m. long and 4 m. wide. It is a part of the "sunk country" produced by the earthquake of 1811. (See EARTHQUAKE, vol. vi. p. 722.) Large forests of cypress abound. The productions in 1850 were 151,094 bushels of Indian corn, 17,260 of oats, 5,972 of wheat, and 33,174 lbs. of butter. Capital, Bloomfield.

STODDARD, RICHARD HENRY, an American poet and author, born in Hingham, Mass., in July, 1825. His father, a sea captain, was lost on a voyage to Sweden in the early youth of the son, who for several years worked in an iron foundery in New York. His health failing in consequence, he became in 1848 a contributor to the magazines and newspapers. In 1849 he published a volume of poems under the title of "Footprints," followed in 1852 by a maturer collection. About the same time he was married and received an appointment in the New York custom house, which he still holds (1862). His remaining publications comprise "Adventures in Fairy Land" (Boston, 1853), a series of prose tales; "Songs of Summer" and "Town and Country, a Book for Children" (1857); and "The Loves and Heroines of the Poets" (New York, 1860). He is still a frequent contributor to the periodical press.

STODDARD, SOLOMON, an American clergyman, born in Boston in 1643, died in Northampton, Mass., Feb. 11, 1729. He was graduated at Harvard college in 1662, was afterward appointed "fellow of the house," and was the first librarian of the college, which office he held from 1667 to 1674. During this time, on account of his health, he accompanied Gov. Serle to Barbados in the capacity of chaplain, and remained there nearly two years, preaching to the dissenters. In 1669 he was called to succeed the Rev. Eleazar Mather as minister of the church at Northampton, and was ordained as such Sept. 11, 1672. In Feb. 1727, Mr. Jonathan Edwards, a grandson of Mr. Stoddard, was elected as his colleague. In 1700 Mr. Stoddard published "The Doctrine of Instituted Churches," as an answer to the work of Increase Mather entitled "The Order of the

Gospel," which occasioned an exciting controversy. He maintained that the sacrament of the Lord's supper is to be regarded as a converting ordinance, and that all baptized persons, not scandalous in life, may lawfully approach the table, though they know themselves to be destitute of true religion. In 1708 and 1709 the same controversy was renewed, and one or two able pamphlets on each side were written. He also published several miscellaneous and occasional sermons; A Guide to Christ, or the Way of directing Souls in the Way of Conversion, compiled for Young Ministers" (1714); and "The Safety of appearing in the Day of Judgment in the Righteousness of Christ," which was reprinted at Edinburgh in 1792.

STOICS (Gr. σToa, porch), or philosophers of the porch, one of the speculative schools of antiquity, so called from the place in which their founder Zeno gave his instructions. Of their earlier representatives, the most prominent were Zeno (about 300 B. C.), Ariston, Cleanthes, Chrysippus, Zeno of Tarsus, Diogenes of Babylon, Antipater, Panatius of Rhodes, and Posidonius (probably 135–51 B. C.); of their later, Seneca (died A. D. 65), Epictetus, Marcus Antoninus, Arrian, and many of the most distinguished Roman citizens. Originally treating the three departments of logic, physics, and ethics, they are chiefly known as moralists, since they connected philosophy intimately with the duties of practical life, and taught the most complete of pagan ethical systems. In logic, they found the criterion of knowledge in sensuous impressions, which furnish the materials fashioned by reason, and combated scepticism, like the modern Scottish school, by affirming that every representation of an object implies the existence of the object itself. In physics, they inclined to pantheism, regarding God and the world as power and its manifestation, matter being a passive ground in which dwells the divine energy. But though they conceived of the Deity as the controlling reason of the universe, the earlier of them sought a material expression for this conception, and spoke of him either as a rational breath or an artistic fire. Their ethics was a protest against growing moral indifference, and had in it something of the excess of a reaction. Their aim was to transfer the theory of nature, ruled by reason, to human life. To live in harmony with nature, conformably to reason, was their fundamental maxim. Reason is impersonal, universal; hence pleasure, whose ends are individual, must be disregarded; the passions, which are not rational impulses, are to be extirpated; and a state of apathy is to be cherished, which secures liberty, the prize and quality of virtue. To be free is to act by universal reason, looking only to universal good, disengaged from anger, jealousy, envy, and hatred, and with entire self-abnegation. Thus life is rendered always uniform and equal to itself. The sage is like a good actor, who, whether he take the part of Agamemnon or of

Thersites, does it equally well. And as the divine reason is the law of virtue, every virtuous act is an act of piety; and as all things are well done in the city of God, the wise man will resign himself complacently to events. Thus there is no good but virtue, or obedience to reason, and no evil but vice. Pleasure, pain, health, wealth, life, and death are matters of indifference. Virtue depends exclusively on ourselves, and no one can take it from us; but all things else depend on others or on fortune, and the sage should be independent of them. But even the stoical apathy admitted the promptings of the heart as the impulse of nature; it did not, as Plutarch says, wish to transform men into Lapitha of bronze and diamond; it allowed a choice in indifferent things, so far as they might enter into the account of a moral life; but it laid its stress on the inner light of duty, on resignation, piety, and tolerance. While it introduced a clear conception of absolute right, founded on universal order and harmony, it failed to furnish a system of concrete duties. Its ideal of man was a divinity without earthly relations. The asylum of heroic moralists, it exerted a private and speculative but no political influence, and regenerated nothing in Greek society. More congenial to the genius of the Romans, it became among them an ardent faith, the religion of great souls, having its devotees and martyrs, and furnished to the empire its best rulers. During the period of decline, it disputed with Epicureanism for the supremacy. The one taught love of self, voluptuous repose, intellectual relaxation, moral suicide; the other, dwelling in the sanctuary of conscience, taught love of virtue, tended to concentration and force, killed the passions. The apathy of the one proceeded from a soft abandonment to circumstances; that of the other, from an earnest effort to save the dignity of man when all the interests of society seemed to be making shipwreck. The one had no higher view than pleasure; the other, in a falling empire, conceived of a universal republic, and of law as the queen of mortals and immortals, generalized the conditions of sympathy, and proclaimed beneficence a virtue equal to justice. The stoical and Christian ethical systems have often been compared. Stoici nostro dogmati in plerisque concordant, said St. Jerome. Others of the church fathers spoke of Seneca as Seneca pene noster. Montesquieu said that, if he could for a moment forget that he was a Christian, he would not hesitate to account the extinction of the sect of Zeno among the misfortunes of mankind. Yet the two systems belong to entirely different schemes and tempers of thought, and cannot be compared in detail. There is a more direct antagonism between stoicism and utilitarianism. Bentham, after stating the doctrine that pain is no evil, and that virtue of itself is sufficient to confer happiness, adds: "This was the sort of trash which a set of men used to amuse themselves

with talking, while parading backward and forward in colonnades, called porches."-See Ravaisson, Essai sur la métaphysique d'Aristote, vol. ii. (1837); Tiedemann, System der stoischen Moral (1776); and Meyer and Klippel, Vergleichung der stoischen und christlichen Moral (1823).

STOKE-UPON-TRENT, a town and parliamentary borough in Staffordshire, England, the latter including about of what is commonly called the Potteries, and embracing several parishes and townships, among which are Burslem, Lane-End, Longton, Hanley, &c.; pop. of the borough in 1861, 101,303; of the town, 57,942. Stoke is situated on the river Trent, 16 m. N. by W. from Stafford, and 148 m. N. W. from London. It has very extensive manufactures of china and earthenware. The borough returns two members to parliament.

STOKES, a N. co. of North Carolina, bordering on Virginia, and drained by a branch of the Dan river; area, 550 sq. m.; pop. in 1860, 10,402, of whom 2,469 were slaves. The surface is hilly and the soil fertile. The productions in 1850 were 16,004 bushels of wheat, 223,000 of Indian corn, and 42,636 of oats. There were 6 iron forges, 19 tobacco manufactories, and 1,035 pupils attending public schools. Iron ore is abundant. Capital, Germantown.

STOLBERG, FRIEDRICH LEOPOLD, count, a German author, born at Bramstedt, Holstein, Nov. 7, 1750, died near Osnabrück, Dec. 5, 1819. At Göttingen, where he completed his studies (1772-5), he was a leader in the Dichterbund, including Boje, Bürger, Miller, Voss, Hölty, and Leisewitz, which acknowledged Klopstock for master. In 1775 he travelled with Klopstock, Goethe, and others through southern Germany and Switzerland; in 1777 was appointed ambassador of the prince-bishop of Lübeck at Copenhagen; fulfilled a diplomatic mission in Russia in 1785; became Danish ambassador at Berlin in 1789; and, on returning from travels in Italy (of which he wrote a narrative, 4 vols., 1794), was placed at the head of the administration of Lübeck in 1791. He had already published a translation of the Iliad (1778); a volume of lyrics (1784); the Schauspiele mit Chören (1786), in which Theseus and Timoleon are celebrated as founders of civil liberty; and the prose romance Die Insel (1788), a Utopian description of a perfect republic. In 1800 he united himself with the Roman Catholic church; and his position as a statesman and scholar lent importance to this event, which appears prominently in the contemporary writings of Voss, Gleim, Jacobi, Herder, Haller, Lavater, and Schiller, and which served as an example to the younger Schlegel and others of the romantic school. His principal subsequent work was the Geschichte der Religion Jesu Christi (15 vols., Hamburg, 1811-'18), embracing the period from the creation to A. D. 430. It was continued by Kerz (vols. xvi. to xlvi., Mentz, 1825-'46), to the end of the 12th century, and

by Brischar (vols. xlvii. et seq., Mentz, 1849 et seq.). An index to vols. i. to xv. was prepared by Moritz (1825), and to vols. xvi. to xxiii. by Sausen (1834). He also published lives of Alfred the Great (1815) and St. Vincent de Paul (1818). His writings form the larger part of the Werke der Brüder Stolberg (22 vols., Hamburg, 1821-6).—CHRISTIAN, count, a German author, brother of the preceding, born in Hamburg, Oct. 15, 1748, died near Eckernförde, Jan. 18, 1821. He studied at Göttingen (1769-74), where he was a member of the Dichterbund, and wrote poems, translations, and plays.

STOMACH, the hollow organ in which the function of digestion is performed, as uniformly present, in variously modified forms, in every perfectly developed animal, as it is absent in the vegetable kingdom. From the simplest form in the polyp to the complex structure in the ruminant, this organ is described under the appropriate titles, and particularly under COMPARATIVE ANATOMY. As a general rule, throughout the vertebrate animals we find a complex stomach associated with a vegetable diet; but this has striking exceptions, as for instance in the dolphin, which has a multiple stomach with an animal diet, and the horse, which has a simple stomach with the same vegetable food as the ox. In man the stomach is the widest and most dilatable part of the alimentary canal; it is situated in the upper part of the abdomen, in the epigastric and part of the left hypochondriac region, below the diaphragm, above the arch of the colon and transverse mesocolon, and to a certain extent between the liver and spleen; it comes in contact in front with the anterior wall of the abdomen, and behind with the organs and vessels lying upon the spine. Its shape varies greatly, but when moderately distended, in or out of the body, resembles a bent cone, curved from before backward and from above downward, following its length; it lies almost transverse, a little obliquely downward, forward, and to the right; the anterior border is the greater curvature, and is lodged between the folds of the great omentum; the œsophagus enters at about of the length from the left extremity; the great cul-de-sac on the left is united to the spleen by short vessels. It is about 14 inches long, and 5 wide at the central part, tapering gradually to the pylorus on the right; its normal capacity is about 175 cubic inches or 5 pints, and its weight 6 to 7 ounces. Though naturally kept in place by the omental folds of the peritoneum, any unusual distention may displace it, chiefly in a downward direction; the habit of tight lacing sometimes gives to the stomach a permanent hour-glass shape, variously thrusting its openings from their natural positions, and greatly embarrassing digestion. The oesophagus or gullet, after passing through the diaphragm, opens into the stomach at the cardiac orifice on the left, and the digestive cavity is separated from the intestinal

The

canal by an external constriction and an internal valve at the pyloric opening on the right. Its walls consist of 3 coats, an external or serous, middle or muscular, and internal or inucous; the 1st keeps the organ in place, limiting its movements, the 2d enables it to execute the peristaltic movements so necessary to digestion, and the 3d secretes by its glands the gastric and other juices concerned in the preparation of chyme; some anatomists count a 4th or fibrous layer between the muscular and the mucous. Between the coats are layers of areolar tissue, containing the vessels, nerves, and lymphatics; the muscles are of unstriped or organic fibre, arranged in longitudinal, circular, and oblique layers. The mucous membrane is delicate, smooth and velvety in some parts, more or less rugose in others, reddish white, covered with a mucous secretion, and rapidly undergoes disorganization; beside the usual glands noticed under INTESTINE, it also contains special gastric cells, whose secretion has been described under DIGESTION. blood vessels are very large and numerous, the arteries coming from the coeliac axis of the abdominal aorta, and the veins emptying into the vena portæ; they freely inosculate in their branches, and are tortuous in their course and loose in their connections to accommodate the distentions of the organ. The nerves are derived from the pneumogastric, and from the solar plexus of the sympathetic system. On the introduction of food into the stomach the organ is excited to movements, the mucous membrane becomes darker and begins to pour out the gastric fluid; the food enters from the oesophagus in successive waves, and is at once subjected to the peristaltic movements which thoroughly mix the gastric juice with its mass; the act of respiration assists in the stomachal movements. The usual course of the food is first to the left of the cardiac orifice, thence along the larger curvature from left to right toward the pylorus, thence returning along the upper or lesser curvature from right to left, to go again through the same course; the revolution takes place in from 1 to 3 minutes, according to the stage of digestion; it is due probably in great measure to the action of the circular muscular fibres. The pylorus is closed during early digestion, gradually relaxing as the process goes on, allowing an almost constant passage of chyme into the duodenum; sometimes the contents pass in the reversed direction, as in vomiting, in which the cardiac orifice is relaxed, the pylorus comparatively closed, and the organ compressed by the abdominal muscles, assisted perhaps by its own contractions. The mucous membrane may be the seat of softening, congestion, hæmorrhage, acute and chronic inflammation, ulceration, and cancerous growths.

STOMACH PUMP. See SYRINGE.

STONE, a general term including all solid mineral substances. The subject is treated mineralogically in the article MINERALOGY, and