somely built.

The public buildings are substantial structures, and there are many elegant private residences. It has great water power for manufacturing purposes, and there are numerous large flouring mills in and around the city. There are iron founderies, machine shops, 2 linseed oil mills, a woollen factory, a paper mill, and numerous other factories. Limestone is largely quarried and burned, producing lime of excellent quality. A number of important railroads centre here, viz.: the Springfield and Columbus; the Sandusky, Dayton, and Cincinnati; the Springfield and Delaware; the Little Miami; and the Columbus and Xenia. There are 1 daily, 1 tri-weekly, and 2 weekly newspapers, 3 banks, 16 churches, and 2 flourishing female seminaries. Wittenberg college (Lutheran) is situated here. A large trade is carried on in wheat, flour, Indian corn, and other produce, and many cattle and swine are exported by railroad to eastern markets.

SPRINGFIELD, a city and the capital of Illinois, and seat of justice of Sangamon co., 188 m. S. W. from Chicago, and 97 m. N. N. E. from St. Louis; pop. in 1860, 9,600. It is situated on a beautiful prairie, 4 m. S. of Sangamon river. Its streets are broad, intersect each other at right angles, and are tastefully adorned with shade trees. From the beauty of the place and its surroundings, it is termed the "Flower City." The state house is one of the finest buildings of the kind in the country, and the other public buildings are handsome and substantial structures. There are 5 newspapers, 4 banking houses, several steam flouring mills, founderies and machine shops, 12 or 14 churches, and 4 public and several private schools. It is the seat of the Illinois state university. It is on the line of the St. Louis, Alton, and Chicago, and the Toledo, Wabash, and Great Western railroads, and is the point of shipment for immense quantities of produce and great numbers of cattle and swine. The value of real and personal property in 1857 was $4,451,907. Springfield was made the state capital in 1836, and was incorporated as a city in 1840. SPRINGFIELD, the capital of Greene co., Mo., on the line of the S. W. branch of the Pacific railroad, 250 m. S. W. from St. Louis, and 130 S. S. W. from Jefferson City; pop. about 1,500. Its situation is high and healthy, and prior to the commencement of the war of secession it was the most important and flourishing town in S. W. Missouri. It has a city charter. During the war Springfield and its vicinity have been the scene of several important movements. Brig. Gen. Lyon, commanding a division of the federal forces, arrived at Springfield, Aug. 5, 1861. On the 8th a skirmish occurred at Dug creek; and on the 10th a battle was fought at David's and Wilson's creeks, the first 9 and the second 15 miles from Springfield, in which Gen. Lyon, with 3 divisions, commanded by Gen. Sigel, Major Sturgis, and himself, attacked the confederate force in greatly superior numbers under Gens. McCulloch and

Price; and after 6 hours' severe fighting, the federal troops remained in possession of the camp, but with the loss of Gen. Lyon and 223 killed, 721 wounded, and 291 taken prisoners on the federal side, and a still heavier loss on the side of the confederates. After the battle Gen. Sigel, taking the chief command, was obliged to fall back on Springfield and the next day to Rolla, to await reënforcements. Gen. Rains, of the confederate army, occupied Springfield with 4 regiments of cavalry on the evening of the 11th. On Oct. 25 Major Charles Zágonyi, commander of Gen. Fremont's body guard, with 160 mounted troops of that guard, in advance of the main federal army, attacked the confederate force at Springfield and captured the town, while held by about 2,000 troops; his loss was 50 killed, wounded, and missing; the confederate loss was 60 killed. On Nov. 3, Maj. Gen. Hunter, appointed to supersede Fremont in command of the federal forces in the department of the West, arrived with his staff at Springfield, and on the 9th abandoned it with his army and returned northeastward. On the 27th it was again occupied by the confederate forces, but again abandoned by them on the advance of the U. S. army under Gen. Curtis in Feb. 1862, by which they were driven into Arkansas and defeated at Sugar creek and Pea Ridge, Benton co., March 6, 7, and 8. SPRUCE. See FIR.

SPURGEON, CHARLES HADDON, an English preacher, born at Kelvedon, Essex, June 19, 1834. His father and grandfather were preachers in the Independent denomination. At the age of 16 he commenced teaching as an usher at Newmarket, and subsequently at Cambridge. Not long after going to Cambridge he connected himself with a "Lay Preachers' Association" there, and went out almost every evening to some one of the villages adjacent, to conduct religious meetings. Soon he commenced preaching, and before he was 18 became pastor of a small Baptist congregation at Waterbeach, one of these villages. In 1854 he was called to the New Park street Baptist chapel in Southwark, London; and his preaching soon drew such crowds that the congregation removed first to Exeter hall, and then to Surrey music hall, the largest public room in London. In 1861 a new chapel of great size was completed for his congregation. Mr. Spurgeon for several years preached an average of nearly a sermon a day, and has beside visited the continent several times, corresponded regularly with an American newspaper, written several books, and superintended the education of a number of young men for the ministry. His sermons have nearly from the first been printed weekly, and 6 volumes have been published collectively.

SPURZHEIM, JOHN GASPAR, M.D., a Prussian philosopher, and one of the founders of phrenology, born at Longwich, Prussia, Dec. 31, 1776, died in Boston, Mass., Nov. 10, 1832. He was educated at the university of Treves, and studied divinity and philosophy. When

Treves was invaded by the French army, Spurzheim with the other students fled to Vienna, where be became acquainted with Dr. Gall, and soon after was employed as his assistant, making dissections for him. From 1805 to 1808 Spurzheim and Gall visited the principal cities of Europe, lecturing and demonstrating their views by dissections of the brain. In 1808 they presented a joint memoir to the French institute on the anatomy of the brain, explaining their discoveries; and the committee to whom it was referred reported on the whole favorably. The two phrenologists then commenced the preparation of their great work on the "Anatomy and Physiology of the Nervous System in general, and of the Brain in particular," of which Spurzheim contributed to the first two volumes. In 1813 they separated, and thenceforward prosecuted their labors independently of each other. Spurzheim, after taking his medical degree at Vienna, went to England, and delivered his first course of lectures in London, and about the same time published "Physiognomy in connection with Phrenology," and "Observations on Insanity." These works were violently attacked by Dr. John Gordon in the "Edinburgh Review," and Dr. Spurzheim at once visited Edinburgh, and in the presence of more than 500 medical students, the pupils of Dr. Gordon, demonstrated the fibrous character of the brain, which the latter had denied. He went to Paris in 1817, and lectured for several years, publishing also works on phrenology, insanity, and education. His lectures being prohibited in 1825, he went again to England, in 1831 returned to Paris, and in the summer of 1832 visited the United States. Having delivered several lectures in Boston, he was seized with a fatal fever from over exertion about 2 months after his arrival. Dr. Spurzheim's principal works, beside those already mentioned, are: "Anatomy of the Brain" (Svo., London and Boston, 1831-2); "Phrenology, or Doctrine of the Mind" (8vo., London and New York); "Sketch of the Natural Laws of Man" (London and Boston).

SPY, as defined by Bouvier, "one who goes into a place for the purpose of ascertaining the best way of doing an injury there. The term is mostly applied to an enemy who comes into the camp for the purpose of ascertaining its situation in order to make an attack upon it." The punishment inflicted on a detected spy is death. In all time it has been an acknowledged right of nations at war with each other to avail themselves of the service of spies or secret emissaries in carrying on their hostile operations. Before entering Canaan the Hebrew lawgiver twice sent spies to examine the land and the condition of the people. Grotius and Vattel lay down numerous principles in regard to their employment. It is admitted by all writers on international law that there is something revolting to the mind of an honorable man in performing the service of a spy, and therefore a commander has not a right to

compel one of his soldiers or officers to undertake it. He may urge him to it by pecuniary or other motives, but if he still refuses he may not compel him. The spy, in his assumed character, is justified in obtaining what-information he can concerning the condition and purposes of the enemy, but it is wrong for him to resort to assassination or poisoning. "He may weaken the enemy," says Vattel, "by all possible means which do not affect the common safety of human society." Writers on international law also hold that a commander is justifiable in tempting or soliciting, by bribes or otherwise, an enemy's subjects to betray him, or act as spies, though they admit that such a course is hardly compatible with strict rectitude. They insist, however, that it is perfectly right to accept the offers of a traitor. The commander does not seduce him, and it is right that he should take advantage of his crime, though he may detest him for committing it. In the history of the border wars in the western states and territories of North America, this word is frequently used to denote a species of scouts or rangers, usually backwoodsmen or hunters, who marched in the advance or on the flanks of an army, to act as guides, and to watch, as the name implies, the motions of the enemy

The ser

especially to seek and detect the ambuscades of the Indians. They were not spies in the odious military sense of that term. vice was honorable, and was equivalent to that of light troops in regular armies. This use of the word is peculiar to American history.

SQUADRON, in military science, a body of cavalry comprising 2 companies or troops, and averaging from 150 to 200 men. A detachment of ships of war employed on a particular expedition is also called a squadron.

SQUARE (Lat. quadratum), in geometry, a figure formed of 4 equal sides meeting each other at right angles. The term appears to have been originally applied to the corners of figures alone, and in the oldest English work on geometry (Recorde's "Ground of Arts"), the word quadrate (four-sided) is added to it when it is used to designate a square figure. It is common, even at the present time, to find it used in a similar sense, as when applied to the tool called the carpenter's T square, a rule of two limbs united at a right angle, and used for drawing right angles. The word is applied also to angles, though not to right angles, in calling a triangular file 3-square.-Square measure presents the superficial areas of surfaces in square units, as inches, feet, miles, &c.-In arithmetic, the square is a number consisting of another number multiplied by itself; and this use of the word evidently has reference to the geometrical figure, the area of which is equal to the number of units forming one of its sides multiplied by itself. The number thus multiplied is called the square root, and the method of discovering it in algebraic and arithmetical formulas is known as the extraction of the square root.

SQUASH. See GOURD.

SQUASH BUG, a well known hemipterous insect, the coreus tristis (De Geer). It is about of an inch long, with a triangular head; the general color is ochre yellow, rendered dusky above by numerous black dots; the sharp edges of the abdomen project beyond the closed wing covers; on the back of the head, behind the eyes, are 2 glassy raised eyelets. They appear by the last of June or beginning of July, when the squash vines have put out a few leaves, pair, and soon begin to lay their eggs; they conceal themselves by day, and in the evening fasten their eggs in little patches on the under side of the leaves by a gummy substance; the eggs are soon hatched, and the young, pale ashy and with large antennæ, at first live together in swarms; they resemble the adults except in the absence or rudimentary condition of the wings and their covers. They are hatched in successive broods during summer, pass through their last change, and attain their full size in September and October, when they leave the plants and conceal themselves in crevices, passing the winter and spring in a torpid state. The loss of sap from the punctures of these insects causes the leaves to become brown, dry, and wrinkled, when they are deserted for fresh ones. When irritated, and particularly when crushed, they give out a strong, nauseous odor. It is best to destroy them when few in number and before they have laid their eggs, or to crush the latter before the vines have begun to spread. Whatever promotes the vigorous growth of the plants renders them less liable to suffer from these bugs. The C. marginatus (Fabr.) of Europe is of an obscure brown, of similar habits, and emits a strong odor of apples.

SQUID, a cephalopodous mollusk, of the dibranchiate order, tribe decapoda, family teuthida, and genus loligo (Lam.). The body is elongated, tapering behind, with a pair of terminal fins; branchia 2; arms 8, with 2 rows of pedunculated suckers, and 2 tentacles; the internal shell, or gladius, is reduced to a horny quill-shaped plate, with 2 lateral expansions; the ink bag is well developed, and its secretion jet black. They are good swimmers, all marine, and never leave the water; they can creep head down on the cephalic disk; the ova are enclosed in long, gelatinous, cylindrical sheaths, called sea grapes, and may be nearly 40,000 in number; the sight is good, and the movements rapid; they are used as food by man, as on the coasts of Greece. They are sometimes called calamaries, from the internal pen-like bone and ink bag, and the general cylindrical form like an ancient escritoire. The common squid of the New England coast, the L. illecebrosa (Lesueur), is from 6 to 12 inches long; the colors vary rapidly, with the will of the animal, from yellowish white to bluish, violet, brown, red, and orange, in spots or general tint. They swim rapidly backward by dilating and contracting the sac-like body, and forward by the terminal VOL. XV.-2

fin; they devour numbers of small fish and crustaceans, and in turn are eaten by larger fishes, and used as bait by cod fishers. Descriptions and figures of this and other American species may be found in the "Journal of the Academy of Sciences of Philadelphia" (vol. ii. p. 86, 1821). In the old world, squids are found from Norway to New Zealand; the L. vulgaris (Lam.), common about the shores of Great Britain, and used in Cornwall as a bait for cod, attains a length of 1 to 14 feet. The flying squids (ommastrephes, D'Orb.), and the hook squid (onychoteuthis and enoploteuthis, D'Orb.), have been alluded to under MOLLUSCA.

SQUIER, EPHRAIM GEORGE, an American author and archæologist, born in Bethlehem, Albany co., N. Y., June 17, 1821. Having for some time taught school and studied engineering, he went to Albany in 1840 and became connected with the press, and in 1841-2 was assistant editor of the "New York State Mechanic," a politico-scientific journal, and identified with the movements of the mechanics for a reform in the system of state prison labor. In 1843 he became editor of the "Hartford (Conn.) Daily Journal," supporting the election of Henry Clay to the presidency, and in 1844 removed to Chillicothe, Ohio, to assume the editorship of the "Scioto Gazette." While filling this position and serving one term as clerk of the lower branch of the Ohio legislature, he made an extensive survey, in conjunction with E. H. Davis, M.D., of the ancient monuments of the Mississippi valley, and prepared a work on the subject which was published in 1848 as the first volume (4to.) of the " Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge." In the autumn of 1848 he made an exploration of the aboriginal monuments of the state of New York, which was published by the Smithsonian institution in 1849, and also at Buffalo, N. Y., in 1852 (8vo.). In March, 1849, he was appointed by President Taylor chargé d'affaires to Guatemala, with extraordinary powers to the other Central American states. His despatches, subsequently published by order of congress in 2 volumes, related not only to political matters, but to the geography, topography, climate, and resources of the country, and particularly to the projected interoceanic canal. On the death of Gen. Taylor he returned to New York, and in 1851 visited Europe, residing there a year, receiving the medal of the geographical society of France, and being made a member of the royal society of literature, fellow of the societies of antiquaries of England, France, and Denmark, &c. Returning to the United States in 1853, he conceived the plan of an interoceanic railway through the republic of Honduras, made with a corps of engineers a preliminary survey of the route, negotiated the requisite concessions from the government of Honduras, and organized at New York a company for carrying forward the work. He subsequently visited Europe, where he secured the cooperation of many English and French capi

talists, and special guaranties for the road from the English and French governments. As an incident in these negotiations, he drew up the treaty between Great Britain and Honduras for the retrocession of the Bay islands, the principles of which, adopted by the former, opened the way for the adjustment of all her disputes with the Central American states. The final survey of the proposed railway was also conducted under his direction. Beside those above mentioned, Mr. Squier has published the following works, most of which have been translated into German, French, or Spanish: "Nicaragua, its People, Scenery, Ancient Monuments, and proposed Interoceanic Canal" (2 vols. 8vo., New York and London, 1852); "The Serpent Symbol, or Worship of the Reciprocal Principles of Nature in America" (8vo., New York, 1852); "Notes on Central America," &c. (1854); “Waikna, or Adventures on the Mosquito Shore," under the nom de plume of Samuel A. Bard (12mo., 1855); Question Anglo-Américaine, &c. (8vo., Paris, 1856); "The States of Central America," &c. (8vo., New York, 1857); "Report of the Survey of the Honduras Interoceanic Railway" (4to., London, 1859); "Translation, with Notes, of the Letter of Don Diego de Palacio (1571) to the Crown of Spain on the Provinces of Guatemala, San Salvador, &c." (New York, 1860); "Monograph of Authors who have written on the Aboriginal Languages of Central America" (1861); and "Tropical Fibres and their Economic Extraction" (1861). He has also contributed numerous articles to this cyclopædia and the "Encyclopædia Britannica," to the "Transactions" of the American ethnological society and of numerous scientific societies of Europe, and to many American and European periodicals and public journals.

SQUILL, the bulb of plants of the genus scilla or squilla, of which the S. maritima, or sea onion, furnishes, the medicine called squill. The plant is perennial, and grows on the coast of the Mediterranean. The bulb is pear-shaped, from 3 to 6 inches in diameter, and consists of fleshy scales, closely laid over each other, and covered by thin, dry, external scales, which are sometimes red and sometimes white. The juice is viscid and very acrid, but its acrimony partially disappears, without loss of medicinal power, when the bulb is dried. For this purpose it is cut into thin slices, and exposed to artificial or solar heat. It is exported in oblong pieces of a white or dull yellowish white color, possessing a feeble odor, and bitter, nauseous, and acrid taste. Analyzed by Tilloy of Dijon, it was found to contain a very acrid and poisonous resinoid substance; a very bitter principle, previously recognized by Vogel and called scillitin; a fatty matter; citrate of lime; and mucilage and sugar. About of a grain of the first named substance was found sufficient to kill a dog.-Squill yields its medicinal properties to water, alcohol, and vinegar, and is also used in substance in the form of pill. Its

effects are expectorant, diuretic, and, in large doses, emetic and purgative. It is used in combination with tartar emetic or ipecacuanha to stimulate the vessels of the lungs; and in dropsical diseases it is much employed to increase the secretory action of the kidneys.

SQUILL (squilla, Fabr.), a genus of crustaceans of the division stomapoda, so called from having the feet placed around the mouth. The body is elongated and generally slender, the head distinct from the thorax, the carapace leaving uncovered 4 of the thoracic rings, and the abdomen terminating in a wide caudal fin of several plates adapted for swimming. The antennæ of the 1st segment of the body are long, ending in 3 many-jointed filaments, cannot be bent under the head, and are inserted below the eyes near the median line; the antennæ of the 2d segment are shorter, more external, having at the base a large ciliated plate, and terminate in a single many-jointed filament; the eyes are at the end of movable appendages. The mouth is toward the posterior 3d of the carapace, and has an upper and under lip, a pair of mandibles, and 2 pairs of jaw feet arranged around it; the 3d pair of feet are prehensile, strong, bent back on themselves, serrated and spined, and used very much like the 1st pair of feet in the soothsayer (mantis); the next 3 pairs are directed forward, applied against the buccal apparatus, and inserted close together, with a wide, rounded, ciliated plate at the end; the last 3 thoracic limbs are slender, with styliform process and ciliated, the segments to which they are attached resembling those of the abdomen. Most of the rings of the body are complete, very nearly equal, and movable on each other; the carapace is nearly quadrilateral, longitudinally divided by 2 more or less distinct grooves; the 1st 5 abdominal rings have large false feet, to the posterior part of the base of which are attached the respiratory organs in the shape of floating, ramified, and fringed gills, which are kept constantly in motion. The heart has the form of a long vessel, a little dilated anteriorly, extending almost the length of the abdomen and thorax, sending off lateral branches to each ring; the venous sinuses in which the blood is collected before going to the gills are very large; the stomach advances far into the head. There are many species, all marine, most abundant in the tropics, but some coming as far N. as the English channel; they are usually met with far from shore and in deep water; they swim rapidly, striking the water with their powerful tail: they are voracious and carnivorous. The best known species is the S. mantis (Fabr.), 6 or 7 inches long, of a pale yellowish gray color, found in the Mediterranean; the carapace is widened and elongated posteriorly, with the anterior angles spiny; the prehensile feet have 6 teeth; the abdomen has 8 longitudinal rows of crests above; the caudal plates are spiny.

SQUINTING (Lat. strabismus), a deformity resulting from a want of parallelism between