to Ariminum (the modern Rimini), completed the Colosseum, which his father had begun, and also constructed the baths called the baths of Titus. In dedicating these two last, he gave magnificent entertainments, which continued 100 days, on one of which 5,000 wild beasts were said to have been set fighting in the new amphitheatre. His reign was throughout marked by great clemency, checking all prosecutions of lasa majestas, and punishing all informers. He did not even inflict the punishment of death upon those who conspired against his life, and pardoned his brother Domitian, who several times had attempted to get rid of him in order that he himself might ascend the throne. In 80 and 81 Agricola completed the subjugation of Britain. Meanwhile the health of Titus declined, and going to the Sabine country, he expired in the same villa in which his father had died. There were suspicions that Domitian, who succeeded him, was instrumental in procuring his death. Beside the letters and edicts of his composition, Titus is said to have written Greek poems and tragedies. The chief authorities for his life are Suetonius, Dion Cassius, and Tacitus.

TITUS, a companion and fellow laborer of the apostle Paul. He was a Greek, but we know not from what country. He was one of those persons sent from Antioch to Jerusalem to consult the apostles, and it was not judged necessary that he should be circumcised. He accompanied the apostle on his journey to Jerusalem, was his agent at Corinth and in Dalmatia, and was left behind with ecclesiastical commissions upon the island of Crete. According to Eusebius, Jerome, Theodoret, and the ecclesiastical tradition in general, he was the first bishop of Crete.

TITUS, EPISTLE TO, a canonical book of the New Testament, addressed by the apostle Paul to his disciple Titus. This and the two epistles to Timothy form the pastoral letters of the apostle, all of which have so many points in common that their authenticity has been generally attacked and defended simultaneously. (See TIMOTHY, EPISTLES TO.) The date of the Epistle to Titus has been the subject of much dispute, some fixing it as early as A. D. 52, others as late as 65, others at various intermediate years. The apostle furnishes Titus, whom he had left behind in Crete, with rules of conduct, especially in regard to the appointment of elders (i. 5-9), and warns him against certain false teachers (i., 10-16). He then describes the virtues becoming all classes, ages, and both sexes (ch. ii.), and inculcates obedience to civil rulers, moderation, gentleness, and avoidance of all idle speculations (ch. iii.). TIVOLI (anc. Tibur), a town of central Italy, Papal States, situated on the left bank of the Teverone (anc. Anio), on the slope of Monte Ripoli, at an elevation of 850 feet above the sea, 18 m. E. N. E. from Rome; pop. 6,323. The streets are steep and narrow, and the houses generally indifferently built. It has

a handsome cathedral and several churches. The place is very rich in remains of antiquity. The temple of the Tiburtine sibyl is a beautiful circular building surrounded with Corinthian columns, and adjoining it is the temple of Vesta, now used as a Christian church. There are also remains of baths, bridges, several villas, and of a vast palace commenced by Hadrian. The climate is not considered good, and a great amount of crime prevails among the inhabitants. The manufactures and trade are of little importance. The Teverone forms a series of cascades in the neighborhood of the town, which are a great source of attraction.-Tibur is said to have been founded by the Siculi long anterior to the building of Rome, and to have been afterward colonized by Theban Greeks before the Trojan war. It possessed a small territory, with Empulum, Sassula, and other towns. It is mentioned by Pliny as one of the Sabine towns. The Tiburtines and Romans were at enmity, and the former aided the Gauls in their invasion of Rome in 361 B. C. This brought on a war between them which lasted several years, until in 348 the Tiburtines submitted. A few years later they joined the Latin league against Rome, and after its overthrow united with the Prænestini and Veliterni; but in 335 the consul L. Furius Camillus put them to rout under the walls of Pedum, and Tibur was treated with great severity, but remained nominally independent and a place of asylum for Roman fugitives till the end of the republic. Here Syphax died and Zenobia passed her captivity. The temple of Hercules, for whose worship Tibur was famous, was, excepting that of Fortune at Præneste, the most remarkable in the neighborhood of Rome. Many Romans had magnificent villas here in the later period of the republic and under the empire.

TLASCALA, or TLAXCALA (Aztec, "land of bread"), a territory of Mexico, bounded W. by the state of Mexico, and on all other sides by that of Puebla; area, 1,918 sq. m.; pop. in 1857, 90,158. It received its name from its great fertility in maize.-TLASCALA, the capital, is situated between two mountains on the Rio Papagallo, 10 m. N. from the city of Puebla, and 70 m. E. by S. from Mexico; pop. in 1850, 3,463. It has a cathedral, a state house, an old bishop's palace, and a few other buildings of good architecture, among which is the oldest Franciscan convent in Mexico. In the surrounding country remains of the old Mexican architecture and fortifications still exist.-The Tlascalans belonged to the same family as the Aztecs, and formed at the time of the invasion of Cortes a powerful little republic, in which something like the feudal system was established. Although its territorial limits amounted only to 10 leagues in length by 15 in breadth, it successfully resisted all efforts of surrounding tribes and even of the Mexican monarchy for its subjugation. In 1519 the Tlascalans at first resisted the march of Cortes, but, after

found in places where they could not have gone through the usual stages of tadpole existence, as in gardens and cellars where they could neither have had access to water nor have been introduced from without; the gills must have disappeared shortly after birth, if they ever existed; they appear to have the power of prematurely assuming the functional conditions of terrestrial animals when circumstances demand it; a similar rapid metamorphosis is observed as a rule in the Surinam toad mentioned below. For details on this subject, see "Annals and Magazine of Natural History," vol. xi. (London, 1853). The toad has been regarded as venomous in almost all countries and ages, its saliva, bite, cutaneous and watery secretion, and even its breath and glance, being supposed to be poisonous and more or less maleficent; the acrid exudation from the skin is sufficient to produce a painful irritation on a tender skin or a wounded mucous membrane; though it will make a dog quickly drop a toad from its mouth, it has no effect when introduced into the circulation; it not only serves thus for the protection of the animal, but is probably partly excrementitious, and assists the lungs in freeing the blood of carbon. Space will not permit more than an allusion here to the strange stories and superstitions connected with the toad; venomous and malicious as it was believed to be by the ancients, "the precious jewel in its head" was considered its redeeming quality; this jewel was not its bright and beautiful eyes, as hinted at by Shakespeare, but the bufonite or toadstone, supposed to possess wonderful medical and magical powers, and now known to be a palatal tooth of the fossil ganoid fish pycnodus. It has always been made a favorite companion for sorcerers and witches, and an ever present article in their magic compounds; it was the first ingredient thrown into the witches' caldron in " Macbeth." The toad has been known to live 35 or 40 years, and it is thought to attain a considerably greater age; it has been so far domesticated as to come and feed from its master's hand, and seems capable of a real attachment to man. From their well known fondness for insects, toads make excellent traps for the entomologist, who may thus procure rare and otherwise unattainable beetles and nocturnal species, which they can be made to disgorge without difficulty; intelligent gardeners often put them into hot-houses to destroy ants and other insects and larvæ injurious to choice plants. Like many other reptiles, the toad can live a considerable time without food and with a very small supply of air; but the alleged instances of their having been found imbedded in solid stone or the heart of a tree, with no possible communication with the external world, have no doubt arisen from errors of observation; though much remains unexplained about the facts upon which this popular belief is based, and though toads have been taken from places where it seemed impossible that they could have obtained food, air, or

moisture, it cannot be admitted that they have been hermetically sealed; with Mr. Thomas Bell it may be said: "To believe that a toad, enclosed within a mass of clay, or other similar substance, shall exist wholly without air or food for hundreds of years, and at length be liberated alive and capable of crawling, on the breaking up of the matrix now become a solid rock, is certainly a demand upon our credulity which few would be ready to answer." Dr. Buckland's experiments in 1825, in connection with the so called antediluvian toads, show that these animals cannot usually survive a long time, not even a year, deprived of air and food; see "Curiosities of Natural History," by his son Francis T. Buckland, 1st series, pp. 74-86 (London, 1859).-The other European species is the natterjack, mephitic, or green toad (B. calamita, Laur.); it is smaller, not 3 inches long, of a light yellowish brown color clouded with dull olive, and with a bright yellow stripe along the middle of the back; under parts yellowish with black spots, and the legs with black bands; iris yellowish green; it is less tumid and the eyes more prominent; the hind legs are shorter and the toes less palmated, indicating more terrestrial habits; it is less common, more active, and frequents drier places; it is found throughout Europe, and in Asia and N. Africa.-The common American toad (B. Americanus, Le Conte) is 24 to 3 inches long, with short, thick, and bloated warty body; anterior limbs large, posterior short with a spade-like process at root of 1st toe, described as a rudimentary 6th toe by some writers; the jaws entire, and the eyes large and brilliant. It has a longitudinal line of dirty white from the occiput to the vent, on each side several spots of various colors, size, and shape, and a row of black and whitish ones extending to the hind legs; lower parts granulated and dirty yellowish white; anterior limbs dusky above with small white spots, the posterior ashy with blotches and bands of black. The head is smaller than in the European toad, the body less bloated, and the movements more active, yet they are representative species. In the breeding season toads and frogs do not generally assemble in the same pond; this species has been found on sandy shores overgrown with beach grass and in salt marshes; it is met with from Maine and Canada to the Mississippi valley; its note is a prolonged trill, continued by day and night, not unpleasant when the concert is at a considerable distance; it has been rendered so tame as to take flies from the hand. The Carolina toad (B. lentiginosus, Shaw) is 3 inches long, warty above, dusky brown with a tinge of yellow; below granulated, dirty yellowish white; head and mouth very large; it is timid and gentle, and fond of ants and fireflies; the males have a large gular sac, and are very noisy in the breeding season; it is found from S. Virginia to Florida, and along the gulf of Mexico. The marine toad of South America (B. marinus, Gray) is the largest of the family, 8