aldermen, who, with the mayor and recorder, form the common council. The common schools are under the charge of 2 commissioners from each ward. The number of schools is 28, of teachers 104, and of pupils 7,946; the cost of instruction per annum is $39,071.75. The Troy young men's association for mutual improvement (the second institution of the kind established in the state) has a valuable library of 14,000 volumes, and a reading room provided with 70 newspapers and periodicals, and maintains a course of lectures in the winter. It occupies a part of the beautiful freestone building on First street, known as the Athenæum, in which building the post office, city offices, and 2 banks are also accommodated. The Troy female seminary, situated on Second street, fronting Park place, was founded at Middlebury, Vt., and was removed to Troy in 1821. It has gained a national reputation under the charge of its founder, Mrs. Emma Willard. The Rensselaer polytechnic institute, endowed by Stephen Van Rensselaer, was organized in 1824, for the purpose of teaching the application of mathematics to civil engineering and the natural sciences, and has in its special departments a reputation second only to that of West Point. It has 100 students and 14 teachers. The Troy university, opened in 1858, occupies a commanding position on Mt. Ida, is 259 by 58 feet, and 4 stories high, is built in the Byzantine style, and can accommodate 150 pupils. Other institutions of note are the Marshall infirmary, incorporated in 1851, founded by Benjamin Marshall; the Troy orphan asylum, incorporated April 10, 1835, supported by donations and state appropriations; St. Joseph's academy, which is a free school; St. Mary's orphan asylum, the Troy hospital, and St. Peter's college, all under the charge of the Roman Catholics; and the Warren free institute, a school for indigent female children. The total valuation of property in Troy in 1861 was $13,079,680, of which $8,162,500 was real estate, and $4,917,180 personal property.-The first house of any note on the site of Troy was built by Matthias Vanderheyden in 1752, and is still standing on the S. E. corner of River and Division streets. The dwelling of Jacob I. Vanderheyden, built in 1767, is also standing in the northern part of the city. Between 1786 and 1790 the tract was surveyed and laid out, with streets running at right angles excepting where such plan was interfered with by the course of the river. Hitherto the place had been variously known as Vanderheyden's ferry, Ferry hook, and Ashley's ferry; but on Jan. 5, 1789, the name Troy was adopted at a meeting of the freeholders. At this time the place contained 5 small stores and about a dozen dwellings. Troy was formed as a town, March 18, 1791, and the first village charter was adopted in the same year. This was superseded by another on Feb. 16, 1798, and the village was formally incorporated by state acts passed April 2, 1801, and

April 9, 1805. The city charter was granted April 12, 1816. On June 20, 1820, a fire took place which destroyed property valued at $490,000, including 93 buildings situated in the thickly populated and business portion of the city. Another fire on Aug. 25, 1854, destroyed property valued at $1,000,000, including 300 buildings. On May 10, 1862, a conflagration destroyed property valued at $3,000,000, including 671 buildings, among which was the union railroad depot, the second Presbyterian, United Presbyterian, and North Baptist churches, the free chapel, the Troy orphan asylum, the Warren free institute, the church asylum, the Rensselaer polytechnic institute, the Troy academy, the Troy city bank, the Union house, Washington hall, and the Fulton house. The fire took on the bridge which crosses the Hudson, one half of which was burned, including the draw. Seven lives were lost.

TROY (TROJA), the name of a district in the N. W. part of Mysia in Asia Minor, and of a city situated in it. The latter was also called Ilium, and the former Troas, now the Troad. According to the account of Homer, the city was situated on ground rising above the plain formed by the rivers Scamander and Simois. On the S. E. was a hill, which was a spur of Mt. Ida, and on which were the acropolis of the Trojans called Pergamum, the palaces of the king, and the temples of the gods. No such city as Troy and no such people as the Trojans were known in historic times; but a region called Troas was spoken of by Herodotus and Thucydides, comprising the territory "westward of an imaginary line, drawn from the N. E. corner of the Adramyttian gulf to the Propontis at Parium." There have been various opinions respecting the site of the ancient city, and many efforts made to reconcile the present topography with the geographical statements made in the Homeric poems and other ancient writings, but thus far with but little success. The modern river Mendere, which rises near the summit of Mt. Ida, and runs 40 m. N. W. into the Hellespont, is generally thought to be the Scamander. In the plain its width is from 200 to 300 feet, and it is by far the most important stream in the Troad. The next in size is the Dombrek, which is only 12 m. in length, and is considered to be the same as the Simois. These streams formed a junction in the time of Homer, but now enter the Hellespont by different channels. The Ilium of history was founded, according to Strabo, about the beginning of the 7th century B. C., and was inhabited by Eolic Greeks, but, in spite of the reputation of occupying the site of the ancient city, did not become a place of importance until the arrival of the Romans in Asia. They largely augmented its dignity and power, on the supposition that it was the parent of their own city. Demetrius of Scepsis and Hestima took the ground that the Homeric Ilium did not occupy the ground of the more modern city,

but was situated about 4 m. further from it in the direction of Mt. Ida, and at a greater distance from the sea. Although no vestige of the "village of the Ilians" existed, this supposition was adopted by Strabo, and has been admitted without any proof by most modern writers. With the exception of the 3 authors above mentioned, all antiquity seemed to recognize in the site of Ilium the place on which holy Troy" had once stood, and probably it was the place which Homer had in view. The legend connected with the city was the most wide-spread, the most celebrated, and the most interesting of the Grecian legends, and the only one which represented all Greece as bound together in the unity of a common interest.Dardanus was the mythical ancestor of the Trojan kings. His son was Erichthonius, who was succeeded by Tros, and he by Ilus, who founded in the plain of Troy the city of Ilium. Ilus was succeeded by Laomedon, and to him Neptune and Apollo became temporarily subject by command of Jupiter. The former built the walls of the city, and the latter took care of the herds; but when their time of service had expired, Laomedon treacherously refused to pay what was due them. In revenge Neptune sent a sea monster to kill the Trojans and ravage their fields, and the treacherous king in consequence made a public offer of the immortal horses given by Jupiter to Tros to any one who could rid the land of the monster. But the oracle declared that a virgin of noble blood must be given up, and the lot fell on Hesione, Laomedon's own daughter. She was rescued however by Hercules, who came at this time and killed the monster. Laomedon gave the hero mortal horses, and the latter, indignant at this perfidy, collected 6 ships, attacked and captured Troy, killed Laomedon, and placed on the throne Priam, who alone of Laomedon's sons had remonstrated against the perfidy of his father. To him were born by his wife Hecuba numerous children, one of whom, Paris, brought on by his abduction of Helen, the wife of Menelaus, the memorable siege of Troy. (See PARIS.) To revenge this outrage, the Greeks spent 10 years in the collection of a vast armament, and at the end of that time a fleet of 1,186 ships, containing more than 100,000 men, was assembled at Aulis in Boeotia, and placed under the command of Agamemnon. The Trojans and their allies were driven within the walls of their city, and 9 years were spent by the Grecian host in the reduction of the neighboring towns. But the gods now brought on the quarrel between Agamemnon and Achilles, which proved so disastrous to the Greeks, and which forms the subject of the Iliad. The Trojans under Hector forced the besiegers to their ships, and killed Patroclus, the intimate friend of Achilles. His death roused Achilles from inactivity, and he once more entered the fight, drove the Trojans within their walls, and killed their bravest leader, Hector. Later legends recount that after his death the

inhabitants of the city were encouraged by the arrival of Penthesileia, the beautiful queen of the Amazons, under whom they were for a time successful, but she was also slain by Achilles. Memnon next came to the aid of the Trojans, with a band of Ethiopians, and under his lead the Greeks were again driven back. A long and doubtful combat ensued between him and Achilles, but at last the Greek champion triumphed. His own time, however, was near at hand; he was slain, according to non-Homeric tradition, at the Scaan gate by an arrow from the quiver of Paris. Philoctetes and Neoptolemus, the sons of Achilles, were summoned to the aid of the besieging army; and at length, by the stratagem of a wooden horse filled with men, which the Trojans incautiously drew into the city, Ilium was taken. Troy was utterly destroyed, Eneas and Antenor alone being suffered to escape with their families.-The legend of Troy was universally believed by the ancients; and the credibility to be attached to it or to any part of it has been the subject of fierce disputes among modern writers. Toward the end of the last century Le Chevalier published an account of the plain of Troy, in which he professed to have found the site of the ancient city, and a controversy sprang up in consequence between Bryant and Morritt, Gilbert Wakefield, and others. Bryant contended that there was no such city as Troy, and no such war as the Trojan; while his opponents held that a basis of truth is not to be rejected because a superstructure of fiction has been erected upon it, and that the universal belief of antiquity was a proof that there was such a war.

TROY WEIGHT, a scale of weights used in England and the United States for weighing gold, silver, and jewels, and in trying the strength of spirituous liquors, and legally established in both for determining the weight of coins. By some, the name of troy weight is supposed to be derived from Troyes in France, the weight being brought thither from Cairo during the crusades, and thence taken to England by the goldsmiths. Others derive the name from Troy Novant, an ancient designation of London; and others from trois, three, with reference to the three principal divisions of penny, shilling, and pound, or penny, ounce, and pound, used in money weight. In 1828 a standard troy pound in brass brought from England was declared by act of congress the legal standard of the U. S. mint. According to Hassler, it is equal in weight to 22.794377 cubic inches of distilled water. It contains 5,760 grains, of which 24 make 1 penny weight, 20 pennyweights an ounce, and 12 ounces a pound. The weight of this compared with the avoirdupois pound is as 5,760 to 7,000, or as 144 to 175. (See AvOIRDUPOIS.) It is identical with the pound of apothecary's weight, and the ounce and grain of these two weights are also correspondingly the same. The pennyweight subdivision of troy weight, determining the

weight of the silver penny, was established in 1256, as equal to the weight of 32 grains of wheat taken from the middle of the ear. As the kings of later times found it expedient to reduce the value of the penny, this reduction was accompanied by a proportional diminution in the number of grains of which it was composed. A troy weight was established in 1618 by James VI. of Scotland, the pound of which weighed 1.323 pounds troy. This is now abolished by law.

TROYES (anc. Civitas Tricassium), a town of France, capital of the department of Aube, situated on the left bank of the Seine, 90 m. E. S. E. from Paris; pop. in 1856, 30,966. The houses have a very antiquated appearance, many of them being made of timber and plaster; but in some quarters these have been replaced by modern buildings. The cathedral, commenced in the 13th century and finished in the 16th, is a fine specimen of the florid Gothic style, with stained glass windows of great beauty. There are several other churches, some of which are very richly decorated. There is a public library containing 55,000 volumes and 5,000 MSS., and numerous schools and scientific and literary societies. Woollen and cotton goods, leather, paper, oil, and wax are manufactured, and there are extensive breweries. Troyes is connected with Paris by railroad.-The town was founded during the occupation of Gaul by the Romans, and in 889 it was burned by the Normans. In 1415 the duke of Burgundy captured it; and 5 years afterward Henry V. of England was married at Troyes to Catharine of France. In 1429 the French, headed by Joan of Arc, expelled the English. In the middle ages great fairs were held here, and the weight called troy, according to some, takes its name from this town. During the last struggles of Napoleon in 1814 his head-quarters were fixed at Troyes, and the town was twice captured by the allies, being once recaptured by the French.

TRUCE OF GOD (Lat. Treuga Dei or Trewa Dei, from Ger. Treue, faith), an institution of the middle ages, designed to mitigate the violence of private war by prohibiting engagement in hostilities, at least on the holy days, from Thursday evening to Sunday evening of each week, also during the entire season of Advent and Lent, and on certain festival days. The days of the week were selected because they were supposed to be rendered holy by the death and resurrection of our Lord. It was an effort made by the church to render less injurious the effects of an evil which it could not wholly root out. This salutary regulation was introduced in the first part of the 11th century, after the great famine of 1028-30, by the bishops of Aquitaine, who proclaimed a universal peace. But as, on account of the martial spirit of the people, it was found impossible to enforce this, they were obliged to limit it to certain days, and thus arose the truce of God in its peculiar sense. The regulation soon spread over all France; and according to its terms, all unarmed per

sons, such as priests, monks, nuns, merchants, women, pilgrims, and cultivators of the soil, enjoyed an undisturbed peace. In 1041 the Aquitanian bishops ordered that no private feuds should be prosecuted from sunset on Wednesday to sunrise on Monday of the following week. This was extended by the council of Clermont to the time from Advent to Epiphany, from Lent to 8 days after Pentecost (Whitsuntide), and not long afterward to the days on which were celebrated the feasts of the Blessed Virgin, of John the Baptist, of the Apostles Peter and Paul, and of All Saints, and the eves of those days. Calixtus II., at the council of Rheims in 1136, renewed in the strongest language the truce of God, commanding war to cease on the above mentioned times throughout Christendom, and all violators were to be excommunicated every Sunday in every parish church, and, unless satisfaction were given either by themselves or by their children, were to be deemed unworthy of Christian burial. Yet in spite of these stern penalties, there is no doubt that the regulation was often violated, and the records of the councils and the chronicles of convents record many such cases. It was however extended over all the dioceses and provinces in England, France, Italy, and Germany. Wednesday was not usually included. When the states of Europe began to assume a more consolidated form, and violations of peace and order came under the control of the civil authority, the truce of God disappeared.

TRUFFLE, a subterranean fungus, of which there are many kinds, some of which are in great request for seasoning food. The ancients seem to have been familiar with truffles, and they are described under the name of idror by Theophrastus. The common truffle (tuber cibarium, Sibthorp) is of an irregular globular form, having a hard black or dark brown cracked rind, roughened into protuberances; within, its texture is netted or veiny with white and dark lines so as to present a marbled appearance, or else a mottled one like the nutmeg. Neither root, stem, nor other appendage is to be seen in the mature truffle, but it lies in the cavity which it forms in the earth by the increasing lateral pressure of its growth, varying in size from that of a bean to that of a walnut or Madeira nut, and found 10 to 12 inches below the surface. The veiny lines of the interior constitute the hymenium, and by confluence furnish irregularly distributed hollows (asci), in which the seed-like bodies (spores), covered by a cellular envelope (epispore), are lodged. This structure is however only a modification of one belonging to a large family of fungi, conspicuous for the evolution of its organs of fructification and its hymenium which accompanies them being plainly exposed to view, and therefore by contrast rendering the hypogeous or underground truffles (tuberacea) strikingly peculiar. The flesh of the truffle is solid, somewhat juicy, and when ripe of a sharp fragrant odor, different species however pos

sessing different flavors of taste and smell. A moist, light, vegetable mould, in young woods or under the shade of large solitary trees, especially of beech and oak, is favorable to their growth, but the subsoil should be calcareous. The species have been found in various parts of the world, and in certain districts of Europe they especially abound; but in the United States they occur but rarely. Such is the esteem in which they are held, that dogs are trained to hunt for them and dig them out of the ground, and many persons employ themselves in the pursuit as a regular occupation. When the air is moist, and just before a thunder shower, they are said to emit a peculiar odor which facilitates the search. The species mostly sold in the English market is the tuber asticum; but in France higher and more delicious-flavored species, such as the T. magnatum and melanosporum, are commonly consumed. Several species of insects greedily feed upon them. The white truffle (rhizopogon albus, Bulliard) is round, rather rough, at first white, then reddish brown, and slightly fibrillose at base, from which circumstance it is called rootbeard by some writers. It grows in woods in sandy soils, raising itself partially above the surface, in which it differs from the truffle, which is wholly concealed. Schweinitz gives 3 species observed in Pennsylvania and North Carolina, and mentions the frequent occurrence of the common truffle in the former state. The artificial culture of truffles is not so easy as that of mushrooms; and great care is requisite to fit the soil for even successful transplanting. In countries where they are indigenous, as in the calcareous districts of France, the simple enclosure of a piece of ground and planting it with young oaks will encourage their appearance after a few years.-The tuberacea, of which the truffle is the type, as subjects for investigation, present unusual attractions to the student in structural botany, and in the employment of the microscope.

TRUMBULL, a N. E. co. of Ohio, bordering on Pennsylvania, intersected by Grand and Mahoning rivers; area, 625 sq. m.; pop. in 1860, 30,656. The surface is undulating and well timbered, and the soil fertile and adapted to dairy farming. The productions in 1850 were 121,068 bushels of wheat, 302,906 of Indian corn, 235,048 of oats, 64,116 tons of hay, 4,852,942 lbs. of cheese, 710,113 of butter, and 208,055 of wool. There were 16 grist mills, 44 saw mills, 4 founderies, 5 woollen factories, 10 tanneries, 78 churches, 3 newspaper offices, and 14,904 pupils attending public schools. It is intersected by the Cleveland and Mahoning railroad and the Pennsylvania and Ohio canal, and Pymatuning swamp occupies part of the county. Capital, Warren.

TRUMBULL, BENJAMIN, D.D., an American clergyman and historian, born in Hebron, Conn., Dec. 19, 1735, died in North Haven, Conn., Feb. 2, 1820. He was graduated at Yale college in 1759, was employed for some time

as a teacher in Dr. Wheelock's Indian charity school in Lebanon, and in 1760 became pastor of the Congregational church at North Haven, Conn. He took an active part in the war of the revolution, not only serving as a chaplain, but volunteering as a soldier. After the war, a large tract of land, known as the "Susquehanna purchase," was claimed by both Connecticut and Pennsylvania; and the conflicting claims occasioned no small disquietude. Mr. Trumbull published a pamphlet on the subject which is said to have been chiefly instrumental in leading congress to acknowledge the claim of Connecticut. He possessed great physical as well as mental vigor, and until he had reached his 85th year his power of endurance had scarcely begun to wane. Beside about a dozen occasional sermons and several controversial pamphlets, he published 12 "Discourses on the Divine Origin of the Scriptures," a "History of Connecticut" (2 vols. 8vo., 1797 and 1818), and a "History of the United States" (8vo., 1810). He bequeathed his MSS. to the library of Yale college.

TRUMBULL, JOHN, LL.D., an American poet, born in Watertown, Conn., April 24, 1750, died in Detroit, May 12, 1831. He passed satisfactorily an examination for admission into Yale college at the age of 7 years, though he did not actually enter it until 6 years later, studying in the mean time the English classics. He was graduated in 1767, and became a tutor in 1771, together with Timothy Dwight, his fellow student, with whom he was associated in writing for the newspapers. In 1773 he was admitted to the bar in Connecticut, but continued the study of law in the office of John Adams at Boston. At the end of 1774 he returned to New Haven, where he remained until 1781, when he took up his residence at Hartford, and there became distinguished in his profession. He was a member of the state legislature, and from 1801 to 1819 a judge of the superior court of the state. In 1825 he removed to Detroit, where the rest of his life was spent. Of his "Poetical Works" (2 vols., Hartford, 1820), the revolutionary satire "McFingal" only is now quoted. This humorous epic, professedly on the model of Hudibras, was so popular upon its original publication that over 30 unauthorized editions of it were sold. It gives a general account of the revolutionary contest in burlesque, with particular descriptions of characters and manners, and satirical sketches of the follies and extravagances on both sides. His principal other poem is "The Progress of Dullness," in 3 parts, the first of which was published in 1772, and the 2d and 3d in 1773.

TRUMBULL. I. JONATHAN, an American colonial governor, born in Lebanon, Conn., in 1710, died Aug. 17, 1785. He was graduated at Harvard college in 1727, subsequently devoted himself to mercantile pursuits, and in 1766, having previously been for many years a member of the Connecticut assembly, was elected lieutenant-governor. He early espoused the