Midlands. South-West. (George 147.) b, Social Division. c, Religious Division 1st Campaign, 1642. (Reich, map 24.) Royalist Plan: to march on London. Oxford, by the garrison at Newark. Fairfax was his opponent, and with the port of Hull in his hands was able to offer a stiff resistance. In the midlands Oxford was a convenient centre for the king to keep a watch on London, whilst it provided an admirable base for Rupert's sallies (e.g. Chalgrove and Cropredy). Essex, for the parliament, held most of the country between Oxford and London, and had strong positions at Aylesbury and Reading. The South-west was a Royalist stronghold. Hopton, an ideal cavalier, was usually successful against the parliamentary leader Waller. There was little opposition to the king in Wales. The king's general object was two-fold. He wished (i.) to secure the Severn Valley and so to link Wales to Devon and Cornwall; and (ii.) to capture London by converging upon it the three armies he raised in the north, the midlands, and the south-west. A difficulty in carrying out the latter plan was the danger of moving these armies while the parliamentary garrisons at Hull, Gloucester and Plymouth were unconquered. Gloucester was also the key to the former project. It was the lowest point where the wide river was bridged and was therefore the one point of easy communication between Wales and the south-west. Various isolated castles and towns were held for Charles : Goring held Portsmouth, and Hertford had a strong force in Somersetshire. Both failed dismally, the one through ambition, the other through strategical shortsightedness, defects which were common on the royalist side. Socially, the king's strength lay in the nobility and gentry, and their tenants and retainers. The parliament's strength lay in the middle classes and the towns. As regards Religion, we may say that the clergy and Churchpeople generally, though of course not universally, with the Roman Catholics, sided with the king; the Puritans and Dissenters with the parliament. On August 22nd, 1642, the king raised his standard at Nottingham. Comparatively few answered his summons and the only reliable force was a body of cavalry under Rupert at Leicester. The parliamentary troops, numerically stronger and better appointed, were under Essex at Northampton. A bold march would have scattered the royalist forces. But delay, and Hyde's skilful political tactics, gave the king a momentary advantage. Recruits poured in from Staffordshire, Yorkshire and Lincolnshire, and with an increased army Charles reached Derby. Here he determined to march on London at once. The idea was sound, but a misunderstanding as to the reality of war prevented its accomplishment and he went to Shrewsbury to collect his adherents from Chester and Wales. Here he issued a proclamation and admitted Roman Catholics to serve under him. Lord Byron was sent ahead to bring money and troops 1. Powick Bridge. from Oxford, and as he was entering Worcester he was attack ed. Luckily Rupert with a body of cavalry came to the rescue and saved the escort. It was this skirmish which gave Cromwell his idea of the Ironsides. He perceived that his side must have men of spirit who will go on as far as gentlemen will go, or else be beaten." 66 The king now marched for London with Essex moving alongside. The Royalists outmarched their opponents, but the result was that they found themselves in a hostile district with an enemy in their rear. They were consequently forced to fight at Edgehill. The battle might have been a victory save for Prince Rupert. He had from the beginning shown impatience of restraint, and had unwisely been freed from the commands of Lindsay, the king's Commander-in-Chief. (Firth 79.) The Royalists were confident of victory. Rupert com- 2. Edgehill. manded the greater part of the cavalry on the right and was opposed by Fortescue, who was but halfhearted in his cause. The infantry on each side were placed in the centre. The battle began with a fine charge by Rupert which scattered Fortescue's men, and the royalist horse swept away in pursuit. On the left the parliamentary troops were defeated and pursued by Wilmot and the king's reserve. This left the royalist centre very weak, and it was easily pierced by Balfour, who captured the artillery and the Royal Standard. The main body of the troops was saved by the return of Rupert. Both sides then drew off, but the king was able to pursue his way to London, so that although it was a drawn battle, the Royalists' march was unchecked. On the other hand, the weakness of both sides had been displayed. It remained to be seen which would be the first to take the lesson to heart, for victory would rest with that side. The king proceeded on his way, took Banbury, and reached Oxford. In the meantime London was in a panic. Some proposed negociations with the king; others began to talk of a Scottish Alliance. Meanwhile Rupert made a dash on the Parliamentary camp at Brentford. This roused 'the 3. Brentford. Londoners, who, 24,000 strong, turned out and encamped on Turnham Green. Charles refused to try to force a passage, and retired to Oxford. This humane decision is open to criticism from a military point of view, but, right or wrong, it lost him the best chance of victory he had in the whole course of the war. On the whole, military success in this opening campaign was divided. Goring had surrendered Portsmouth, as he found a siege gave him but small scope. Hertford had foolishly chosen (Firth 82.) Negociations at 2nd Campaign, 1643. Royalist Plan: 3 London (Reich 24, IV.) i. North. Adwalton Moor: to make Wells and not Bristol his headquarters, and ended as a prisoner at Sherburne. Hopton had won a victory at Braddock Down; Newcastle beat the parliamentary troops at Tadcaster, but was forced to retire to York. Oxford was well-defended by a circle of garrisoned towns. Both amongst the Royalists and Parliamentarians there was a strong desire for peace. Terms were offered by parliament, but as they insisted on the retention of the Root and Branch Bill, no solution was possible. A plot for a royalist rising was also discovered in the city and this had the effect of binding together the members of the parliament in a Covenant. Pym seized the opportunity to make the religious question prominent, and war alone could decide the issue. The royalist plan in the second campaign was sound. The three armies of the north, the midlands, and the south, were armies to attack to advance on London. Newcastle opened the campaign Firth, Harrison successfully by beating the Fairfaxes at Adwalton Moor, thus neutralising Cromwell's capture of Gainsborough. The royalists took Lincoln and then proceeded to Hull, the stronghold of parliament in the north. But without a fleet they could do North won for nothing. The Fairfaxes, allying themselves with Manchester and Cromwell, beat back Newcastle at Winceby, thus saving but (a) Hull cannot Hull and practically checking the Royalists' march south. Moreover it was now that the Eastern Association first came into notice. Cromwell was its leader, and his aim was to enlist blocks the way. men who had their cause warmly at heart. Thoroughly disciplined, they were the germ of the "Ironsides." King, be left; (b) E. Association ii. West. Hill, and Round In the south the king was far more successful. Hopton was capable and energetic; Waller his opponent was a careful rather than a brilliant general, who took full advantage of the unpopularity which came to the Royalists through their plundering habits. He was defeated at Stratton, and Hopton advanced towards Bath. After a fierce struggle, Hopton again defeated the Parliamentarians at Lansdown Hill, and Stratton, Lansdown Roundway Down. In spite of the unwillingness of his men to way' Down, win leave their counties with Plymouth still untaken in their rear— Devon for King; a misfortune constantly weakening royalist strategy,-he entered Hampshire and took Arundel. This marked the extent of his success in the south. His next battle was fraught with great issues. If he had succeeded in defeating Waller at (b) defeat at Cheriton Cheriton, he would have brought Manchester south and thus enabled Rupert to check the Scottish advance, and he himself would have had an open road to London. His repulse drove him back to Cornwall. but (a) Plymouth cannot be left; (1644) checks Hopton. iii. Midlands. At Oxford the king was inactive, for Essex held the main roads. Rupert surprised a convoy by a midnight attack, but failed to secure his booty. The skirmish resulted in the death [Chalgrove Field.] of John Hampden, one of the leading Parliamentarians, who had been prominent in the Ship Money case. Then followed weeks of inaction. The king's plan for his three armies was Main Army cannot considerably checked by the unwillingness of north, west and advance: south to leave their homes at the mercy of the garrisons in (a) Essex blocks Hull, Gloucester and Plymouth. The king was in a dilemma. route; be taken. (George 147.) Attempt on Gloucester fails. Ist Battle of Newbury. Should he with his Oxford force free Hopton by taking Glou- (b) Gloucester must cester or at once attack London? He was not strong enough to do the latter, and with the unanimous support of his council and a promise of surrender from the Governor of Gloucester, But the townsmen he proceeded against the western town. refused to surrender, and Essex marched from London with a large army collected from the train bands, and raised the siege. Both armies then raced for London. They met at Newbury. The battle raged all day but the Londoners stood firm. The field of action was split up by hedge-rows and lanes. These were held by the parliamentary troops, and Rupert's horse was useless. The fight consisted mainly of hand to hand struggles, fierce and deadly. The Royalists lost three notable leaders, Falkland, Carnarvon and Sunderland, and at length, disheartened, retired towards Oxford, leaving the road open to London. Thus the campaign of 1643 ended like the former, indecisively. a, b, Covenant. Increased the Military strength of Parlt.; Brought Parlt. into conflict with Independents. But at the close of the year four important events took place, which influenced the whole course of the war. (1) The Scots for some time had been divided into two parties, headed respectively by Argyle and Montrose. The former was sup- Solemn League and ported by the Presbyterians and sided with the English parliament; the latter wished to preserve the monarchy as a defence against the rising power of democracy, and as a check on Argyle. The king refused to summon a Scottish parliament, lest it should raise an army against him. So Argyle convened the Estates and matters were furthered by the discovery of a plot for bringing the Irish into Scotland and for risings by Montrose and Hamilton. Proposals had already been made to the English Parliament, but it was the royalist victory at Adwalton Moor which really drove it to make with the Scots a religious and military alliance. Englishmen had no wish to become Presbyterians, but the Scots would not help them on any other basis than the acceptance of the Covenant of 1637. Parliament agreed to force on England an ecclesiastical system in accordance with the Covenant, that is, on Presbyterian lines, in return for doing which 20,000 Scottish troops would be sent to its help in England. (2) The ratification of the Solemn League and Covenant was no sooner made than Pym, who had been mainly instrumental in its accomplishment, died. A clever speaker, an adept politician, he was the first great English party leader. He made his plans and clung to them. Ever ready to make opportunity Death of Pym. (Firth 48, 51.) Rise of the Independents. 20 and 23. Firth 144-7.) a, Their importance out of an opponent's mistake, he was indeed a man of shrewd turns." His death deprived his party of a capable leader who had hitherto held it together. (3) After his death the natural division between the Inde(Cromwell's Letters, pendents and Presbyterians soon shewed itself. The former were in reality as bitter against Presbyterian as against Episcopal authority. Their growth had a vast effect on the history of the next six years. They supplied the motive spirit, the religious enthusiasm, which ultimately overthrew the monarchy. By their capture of the army in 1645 they presently broke the Scottish alliance, and finally attempted to crush out the civil power by military force. b. Their opinions. G. & M. 148.) Though agreeing in doctrine with the Presbyterians, they differed widely over the questions of Church Government and State intervention. The Independents claimed that each congregation was independent (whence the names of Con(Green 560-3, 588-91; gregationalists" and "Independents ") and might arrange its own rules. If they had put this logically into practice when they obtained power they would have given Toleration indeed. But they, like every other religious party in those days, proved as intolerant when in power as they had been clamorous for toleration when oppressed. Nevertheless their c, Their service to advance to supremacy was a step forward in the direction of Toleration. (Wakeman's Hist. 376-8; Gardiner and Mullinger 151-2.) (Green 468 G. & M. 147.) The Irish Cessation. 3rd Campaign, 1644. (Reich, map 24.) religious liberty. Parliament in alliance with Scottish Presbyterianism would have petrified English religion into a rigidity beyond the wildest dreams of Papist or Anglican: from this fate at any rate England was saved by Cromwell and the Independent sect. Better to groan under the oppression of the Independents, who at least had "liberty for tender consciences on their lips, than under the tyranny of the Presbyterians, who blankly denounced toleration as the grand design of the Devil." Cromwell was the leader of the Independents. Coming first into notice in the Eastern Association they afterwards made up practically the whole of the New Model Army. In 1644 the retirement of Manchester and Essex left Cromwell in supreme control, and able to present an unbroken front of "Independent" enthusiasts. (4) Meanwhile the Royalists were divided over the Irish question. The king had agreed to a cessation of hostilities in that country, partly because he could no longer help his friends and also because he desired to bring as many of the troops as possible into England. This agreement certainly weakened his cause in the eyes of moderate Englishmen, and at best it was a weak counterblast to the Solemn League and Covenant. In the Third Campaign, the doubtful issue of the operations of the last two years led to reorganisation on both sides. The |