THE COMMONWEALTH. 1649-1660. I. THE REPUBLIC. 1649-1653. i. Establishment of the Commonwealth a. Settlement of the Government b. Dissatisfaction of the "Levellers "-crushed by Cromwell b. Charles (ii.) in Scotland-Dunbar 1650,-Invasion of England— c. The Settlement of Scotland iv. Foreign Policy Relations with Holland 1. Commercial Rivalry 2. Alliance rejected 3. Navigation Act 1652 4. Dutch War 1652-54-Dungeness-Portland Bill v. Unpopularity of the Rump—its ejection by Cromwell 1653 (Firth 232-4; Harrison 131.) The execution of Charles I. did not bear out the hopes of the army. They had violated the law; they had transformed their opponent into a martyr; and now they were face to face with a people unwilling to accept their rule, disliking their form of religion, and quite unable to grasp their ideas. So the years from 1649-1660 saw Cromwell and the army ruling the people in much the same fashion as the Stuarts had done. It (G. & M. 151-3.) has been urged that they were justified because they did it with a conscientious conviction that they were right, but that is a dangerous plea, and can be urged with equal force by any party conscience can make tyrants of us all. Certainly Charles I. had died for his principle that I there is no fairer form of liberty than under a pious king." of the Commonwealth. (Gardiner 294, 296, 297.) . The Agreement of the People was soon put aside. The 1. Establishment monarchy and the House of Lords were abolished by the Rump, and England became a Commonwealth. All was done in the name of the People of England," to preserve the appearance of legality. A Council of State was appointed. It was composed of 40 members, most of whom were Members of Parliament. Milton became Secretary of State. a, Settlement of the Government. (Gardiner 290. Macaulay i. 60.) the Levellers. (Firth 247-9; Harrison 134.) But this did not satisfy all the supporters of the new Govern- b, Dissatisfaction of ment. In the army the 'Levellers' desired far more sweeping reforms; their demands for manhood suffrage, annual parliaments, and complete religious liberty strangely anticipate demands of a later century. Cromwell was despatched to well. Burford to settle the disturbed state of the army. This he did Crushed by Cromin his usual thorough manner. 41. Reduction of Ireland. (Firth ch. 13; Harrison ch. 8.) Attention was soon diverted to Ireland, where a war, the counterpart of the Second Civil War, broke out. Ormonde, who had retired from Ireland, had returned. Dublin, Londonderry, and Dundalk, were the only towns held by Parliament, a, Ormonde's rising. and Ormonde formed a dangerous confederacy comprising Englishmen (whom the King's execution drew to his side), Irish nobles (whom the promise of an independent parliament and of religious equality attracted), and even some of the native Irish. But the combined forces could not take Dublin, and a little later its Governor, Colonel Jones, defeated them at Rathmines. This checked the royalist cause for a time, and delayed the coming of Charles II. Drogheda. (Firth 259.) Wexford. (Firth 260.) b, Cromwell's set (Firth 265.) 66 Parliament realised the danger, and public opinion in England favoured the stern repression of the rebels." Englishmen remembered the massacres of 1641. Moreover the restless soldiery found pleasing occupation in the operations in Ireland, and the new Government would not tolerate any opposition from Irishmen or Scotsmen any more than from Englishmen. He Cromwell landed a few days after Colonel Jones's victory at Rathmines. With characteristic vigour he at once attacked Drogheda, into which Ormonde had thrown the flower of his army. 28,000 men were massacred in the town with Cromwell's consent. The storming of Wexford followed with a like result. Although in this case the massacre was not intentional Cromwell shewed no remorse for such extreme measures. had come to Ireland not only to be a conqueror but to be also the avenger of the English blood shed nine years before. To himself these arguments were sufficient. The massacres which have disgraced his name certainly attained their object: Ireland lay prostrate at his feet. But they never have been forgotten, and to this day an Irish peasant's strongest malediction is to call down the "Curse of Cromwell." Cromwell also succeeded in separating the royalist Northmen from the genuine Irish, and henceforth the war was really one between English and Irish. After suppressing his opponents in Munster, Cromwell was re-called to England. Ireton, his son-in-law, was left to finish the war, but he died shortly afterwards. Ludlow then governed the country. The social effects of this twelve years' war were ghastly. The peasants were reduced to starvation. Plague, famine and war swept away a third of the population. Enormous tracts of lands were given to 'Adventurers' who tlement of Ireland. had lent money to Parliament. In this way almost twothirds of Irish property changed hands, whilst the Irish themselves were forced to live in Connaught. Thus was wrought, as Lecky says: that lasting division between the proprietary and the tenants which is the chief cause of the political and (a) Land. (b) Religion. (c) Education. social evils of Ireland." In other matters Cromwell was no worse than his predecessors or successors. There was little or no toleration for Roman Catholicism. Freedom of worship was sternly forbidden. Priests carried their lives in their hands as in Elizabethan days. By the zealous teaching of Independent doctrines and by the endowment of Trinity College, Dublin, a vain attempt was made to wean the people from their faith. English laws were rigorously and impartially (d) Its failure. enforced. But, as in the case of the Normans, inter-marriage soon made the Commonwealth yeoman an Irishman and a Roman Catholic. He soon supported every movement against the great landowners who perforce had to remain true to the religious settlement which had given them their possessions. Ireland was represented in the Parliament at Westminster, but, as only non-Catholics had the franchise, the representation was a farce. Cromwell failed, as all others had done, in his settlement of Ireland. He could only enforce outward order, but he failed entirely to convince or to conciliate. Under the circumstances it is difficult to blame him, but his measures, no more enlightened than those of the Tudors, Stuarts, or Hanoverians, were bound to prove impracticable. Scotland. a, Montrose. (cf. b. Harrison ch. 9.) of the Scottish Charles II. in Scotland. Cromwell was recalled to face the growing unrest in Scotland. III. Reduction of Montrose had made an unsuccessful attempt to gather an army for Charles II. Falling into the hands of his political rival, Argyle, he was executed. The Scots, however, proclaimed Charles as King, for they hated Independency worse than Monarchy, and were quite ready to receive Charles on their own terms. The young king left Holland, where political opinion was on the side of the Parliament, and landed in Scotland. Here he took the Covenant. This was tantamount to a declaration of war with England, and the English Government proceeded to take steps accordingly. Fairfax resigned his position as commander-in-chief either through a leaning towards Presbyterianism or through a real belief that Scotland should be allowed to manage its own affairs. Cromwell was appointed in his place and at once went north. His ships gave him command of the sea and he kept to the coast. But he could not bring the Scots under Leslie to battle. Several times the Scottish general out-manœuvred him, once saving Edinburgh and finally actually cornering the Common (Firth 280.) Dunbar, 1650. 153.) wealth army at Dunbar. Here he held them at his mercy, (Firth 282; Harrison while disease thinned their ranks and scarcity of provisions hindered their movements. His own troops had a strong position on the hills around. But his Presbyterian advisers urged him to leave his good position and attack the enemy. Leslie did this the more willingly as he was informed, wrongly as it turned out, that Cromwell's artillery and troops were in process of embarkation. He descended to the slopes of the Doon Hill. It was a fatal move, as Cromwell perceived. The Lord hath delivered them into our hands he said, with that curious combination of worldly-wisdom and piety so characteristic of the Puritans. Leslie's left was cramped between the hill and a ravine. His centre was handicapped by the same hill in the rear. His horse on the right alone had space for free movement. As the morning mists lifted and showed the position of the enemy, Cromwell gave the word to attack. "Let God arise and let His enemies be scattered " he cried. Massing his troops behind some cover on his enemy's right, he made a feigned attack on their left. The Scots, though unprepared, were superior in numbers, and valiantly resisted the attack on their right after the first surprise; it was only a stubborn onset, led by Cromwell himself, which broke their flank. Cromwell gradually drove in the right and centre upon the left, and thus penned the Scottish troops in hopeless confusion between the hill and the ravine. Leslie withdrew the remnants of his shattered forces, and Cromwell at once seized Edinburgh and Leith. The victory at Dunbar brought divisions amongst the Scots. "The kirk had done their do," and now deserted Charles. But a new party, composed of royalists and Argyle's followers supported Charles at Stirling. It was an alliance of great promise but little fulfilment. Cromwell in the meantime had failed to bring Leslie again to battle. He marched his army into Fifeshire in order to cut off the supplies of the Royalists. In doing so he left them an open way into England. Charles and Leslie at once seized the opportunity, and passed (Firth 290.) Worcester, 1651. (Firth 292; Harrison 163.) through Carlisle down the west hoping to gain recruits. When Invasion of England they halted at Worcester but few had joined them. Cromwell followed on a parallel route through Yorkshire, calling up the militia as he went. Passing below Worcester he prevented a royalist advance on London. The Parliamentary cavalry under Lambert and Harrison had already come in touch with the Scots, and soon Worcester was hemmed in. On September 3rd a twofold attack was made on the city from east and west. The attack from the latter covered the attack from the former. Cromwell himself displayed great bravery, and after a long and severe hand-to-hand struggle the Scottish resistance was broken. Charles himself escaped south and thence to France, but few of his Scottish followers ever reached their homes, for every English county rose against them. Scotland. (Firth 296.) Monk had been left with an army in Scotland, and the c, Settlement of destruction of Leslie's forces at Worcester left that country entirely at the mercy of the Commonwealth. Only the great leaders suffered the confiscation of their property, so there was no social upset as in Ireland. Monk kept order by means (a) Political. of the army. Scotland was represented by thirty members at (b) Trade. Westminster. Free Trade was established and a futile at- (c) Social. tempt was made to destroy the feudalism of the clans. Presby- (d) Religion. Relations with Holland. In Europe too the new Commonwealth had its troubles. IV. Foreign Policy. France had internal disturbances and was at war with Spain, whilst the Dutch republicans were hindered from giving active help by an Orange party. But the new Government was alive to possible dangers, and this era of English history saw a wonderful revival in the navy, chiefly owing to the energy of Sir Harry Vane. Portugal was warm in the royalist cause, but with a good navy Portugal's possessions in the West Indies were crushed. It then was found necessary to turn against the Dutch. The latter were the great trade carriers of Europe. Strongly republican in political principles and Calvinistic in religion, they seemed fitting allies for the new England. But 1. Commercial commercial jealousy stood in the way. The two nations were rivals for trade-" the fairest mistress of the world." 2. Alliance rejected. The Dutch refused an alliance, fearing their more powerful neighbours and doubting if the new Government would last. In retaliation, England passed the Navigation Act, which 3. Navigation Act, forced all goods to be brought to England in English ships. This was a direct attack on the Dutch carrying trade. satisfaction ran high, and the English enforcement of their claim to search all ships for contraband of war provoked open Dis rivalry. 1652. (Reich 538.) |