Some of the militia refused to enter Canada, asserting that the war was one of defense and not of offense, and that the militia could not be used to wage an offensive war. Some of the states made it an act of disobedience for their citizens to serve the nation. By such acts as these the federal government was embarrassed in its attempts to gain the co-operation of the militia for national defense. Congress offered large bounties to volunteers, but this did little more than stimulate the crime of desertion.

The series of humiliating defeats which attended the Army through this war, which was unnecessarily prolonged, can be traced, first, to this want of co-operation on the part of the states, and, second, to the lack of efficient and experienced officers to place in command of the new and undisciplined troops. The Military Academy at West Point had been established in 1802, but up to 1812 it had graduated only about 140 officers. As a rule any man who could enroll a company of 59 men received a captain's command; any man who could assemble 10 such companies received a colonel's command. These were the only qualifications necessary to become an officer in time of war. The 500,000 men employed during the two years and a half of the war were called out to face not more than 67,000 British regulars.

With this demonstration before him, ex-President Jefferson, who had formerly stated that "peace was his passion," and who had not believed it necessary to keep the nation prepared for defense, wrote to James Monroe:

"It proves more forcibly the necessity of obliging every citizen to be a soldier. This was the case with the Greeks and Romans and must be that of every free state. We must train and classify the whole of our male citizens and make military instruction a regular part of collegiate education. We can never be safe until this is done."

And in 1814 he went even further and said:

"I think the truth must now be obvious that we cannot be defended but by making every citizen a soldier, and that in doing this all must be marshaled, classed by their ages, and every service ascribed to its class."

That our

The Mexican War did not put the nation to any great test. military policy had not been improved was shown by the fact that Congress again waited until the very eve of the war before making preparations or calling for volunteers. But the people had grown in their sense of duty toward the nation, and responded enthusiastically to the call for volunteers. Before they could be put in the field for any practical use, however, the war was over. Our small standing Army had been brought to a state of efficiency by officers graduated from West Point. It was due largely to them that the war was so quickly won.

In the early days of the Civil War the same mistakes were made as in the previous wars. There was still no definite military policy. The outbreak of the war found no adequate provision made either in organization or in materials. The President was compelled to rely upon a law sixty years old, which permitted him to call out volunteers for a period of three months only. When it became evident that all former provisions were inadequate for a war of such magnitude, President Lincoln courageously assumed powers not granted him and enlarged the Regular Army and called for volunteers to serve for a

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mele loc as the Organized

germent some of the ernment might weld these sence and available upon as the National Guard, the states, trained within it was necessary to mothe National Guard. During the efective force.

minary policy consistent with was the National Defense Act

effect we were plunged into es we met this test with that nation strong. This was the first e armies in the beginning of in spite of errors conseforward.

in mind, attention was e military policy. The act ing the lessons of the war exbetween the states and the time of peace a citizen As of war, yet wholly democratic. he is the best security against sacola taristic usurpation from the United States shall consist of abe in the service of the United

Rates, and the Organized Reserves, including the Officers' Reserve Corps and the Poleted Reserve Corps. These three components constitute in time of peace a frame cork rm which a great national army of well-trained men can be quickly The art alen provides for civilian co-operation to assist in maintaining and National botones Act 1918 (39 Rtat 100)

filling up this framework through military training in schools, colleges, and

The primary purpose of the department is to provide for national defense. More specifically, the Army must provide an adequate organized, balanced, and effective mobile force which shall be ready and available for emergencies within the continental limits of the United States or elsewhere, which must patrol the 1,500 miles of Mexican border, and which must constitute a nucleus for a complete and immediate mobilization for the national defense in the event of an emergency declared by Congress. It must provide adequate defense for our coasts and oversea possessions. To this end, garrisons are stationed in Alaska, Hawaii, the Philippines, Panama, Porto Rico, and China, both as a safeguard for Americans who have settled there and as an added protection for the continental United States and for its commercial and political interests in the Far East.

Much of the training in the Army is of a technical nature. Nearly half of the enlisted men need some form of technical skill in order properly to perform their functions in the team. To provide training in all these lines, post schools, unit schools, and special service schools are maintained. Each school or group of schools is presided over by a commandant selected for the purpose, who is assisted by a competent staff of officer instructors. The following are some of the many types of skilled workers needed in the Army: Tractor drivers, chauffeurs, auto mechanics, battery repairmen, tire repairers, ignition and carburetion experts, teamsters, wagon masters, wheelwrights, shoemakers, saddlers, blacksmiths, horseshoers, cargadors, highway and construction men, bridge builders, dynamo tenders, steam-engine tenders, firemen, sheet metal workers, concrete workers, canvas workers, brick masons, stone masons, painters, carpenters of all kinds, plumbers, pipe fitters, welders, interior wiremen, radio electricians, telephone electricians, telegraph electricians, riggers, instrument repairers, linemen, switchboard operators, clerks, stenographers, typists, bookkeepers, draftsmen, photographers, motion picture operators, lithographers, printers, topographers, surveyors, machinists, foundrymen, pattern makers, shoemakers, pharmacists' assistants, X-ray operators, farriers, buglers, bandsmen, bakers, cooks, butchers, laundrymen, storekeepers and tailors.

The War Department General Staff is charged with the preparation of plans for recruiting, mobilizing, organizing, supplying, equipping, and training the Army for use in the national defense, and for demobilization, and for the mobilization of the manhood of the nation in an emergency. It investigates and reports upon questions affecting the efficiency of all branches of the Army and their state of preparation for military operations. Assisted by an appropriate number of reserve officers, it formulates all policies and regulations affecting the organization, distribution, and training of the National Guard and the Organized Reserves, and all policies and regulations affecting the appointment, assignment, promotion, and discharge of reserve officers. It performs such

941 Stat. 762, § 5 (Comp. St. Ann. Supp. 1923, § 1762a et seq.).

term of three years. So alarming had the situation become that the people gratefully sanctioned his entire course. The war was prolonged over a period of years, and the outcome looked doubtful. While many thousands of men were loyally giving themselves to fight for the Union, many other thousands were shirking their responsibility. When all other measures failed, Congress was compelled to resort to the "draft" or "conscription." Although this measure was greatly resented by many of the people as attacking their liberties, it was further recognition of the principle that every male citizen owes military service to the nation.

As far as military policy was concerned, little was learned from the Civil War. The Spanish-American War found the nation again unprepared for effective action. It was necessary rapidly to fill the vacancies in the Regular Army with raw, untrained recruits.

After each war investigations were conducted to fix the responsibility for the needless loss of life and the reckless expenditure of money. For several years prior to 1916, state troops, which had come to be known as the Organized Militia, had been active in securing from their state government some of the concessions necessary in order that the federal government might weld these forces into a homogeneous whole, capable of efficient service and available upon call of the President. These forces came to be known as the National Guard, which the federal government, with the consent of the states, trained within the limits of congressional appropriations. In 1916 it was necessary to mobilize on the Mexican border the whole of the National Guard. During the resulting months of federal service it proved to be an effective force.

The first real effort to formulate a definite military policy consistent with the traditions, customs, and ideals of the people was the National Defense Act of 1916. Before this law could be carried into effect we were plunged into the World War. In spite of our unpreparedness, we met this test with that spirit of service and sacrifice which makes this nation strong. This was the first time in our history that we were able to organize armies in the beginning of a war on the principle of the draft, and this point, in spite of errors consequent upon hasty organization, marked a definite step forward.

With the lessons of the World War still fresh in mind, attention was directed again to the establishment of an adequate military policy. The act of 1916 was amended June 4, 1920,8 incorporating the lessons of the war experience and providing for effective co-operation between the states and the federal government. It is now possible to develop in time of peace a citizen army that is adequate for protection in times of war, yet wholly democratic. Such an army of the people and controlled by them is the best security against aggression from without and against autocratic, militaristic usurpation from within. This act provides that the Army of the United States shall consist of the Regular Army, the National Guard while in the service of the United States, and the Organized Reserves, including the Officers' Reserve Corps and the Enlisted Reserve Corps. These three components constitute in time of peace a framework on which a great national army of well-trained men can be quickly built. The act also provides for civilian co-operation to assist in maintaining and

6 National Defense Act 1916 (39 Stat. 166.)

8 41 Stat. 759.

filling up this framework through military training in schools, colleges, and

summer camps.

3. Activities

The primary purpose of the department is to provide for national defense. More specifically, the Army must provide an adequate organized, balanced, and effective mobile force which shall be ready and available for emergencies within the continental limits of the United States or elsewhere, which must patrol the 1,500 miles of Mexican border, and which must constitute a nucleus for a complete and immediate mobilization for the national defense in the event of an emergency declared by Congress. It must provide adequate defense for our coasts and oversea possessions. To this end, garrisons are stationed in Alaska, Hawaii, the Philippines, Panama, Porto Rico, and China, both as a safeguard for Americans who have settled there and as an added protection for the continental United States and for its commercial and political interests in the Far East.

Much of the training in the Army is of a technical nature. Nearly half of the enlisted men need some form of technical skill in order properly to perform their functions in the team. To provide training in all these lines, post schools, unit schools, and special service schools are maintained. Each school or group of schools is presided over by a commandant selected for the purpose, who is assisted by a competent staff of officer instructors. The following are some of the many types of skilled workers needed in the Army: Tractor drivers, chauffeurs, auto mechanics, battery repairmen, tire repairers, ignition and carburetion experts, teamsters, wagon masters, wheelwrights, shoemakers, saddlers, blacksmiths, horseshoers, cargadors, highway and construction men, bridge builders, dynamo tenders, steam-engine tenders, firemen, sheet metal workers, concrete workers, canvas workers, brick masons, stone masons, painters, carpenters of all kinds, plumbers, pipe fitters, welders, interior wiremen, radio electricians, telephone electricians, telegraph electricians, riggers, instrument repairers, linemen, switchboard operators, clerks, stenographers, typists, bookkeepers, draftsmen, photographers, motion picture operators, lithographers, printers, topographers, surveyors, machinists, foundrymen, pattern makers, shoemakers, pharmacists' assistants, X-ray operators, farriers, buglers, bandsmen, bakers, cooks, butchers, laundrymen, storekeepers and tailors.

The War Department General Staff is charged with the preparation of plans for recruiting, mobilizing, organizing, supplying, equipping, and training the Army for use in the national defense, and for demobilization, and for the mobilization of the manhood of the nation in an emergency. It investigates and reports upon questions affecting the efficiency of all branches of the Army and their state of preparation for military operations. Assisted by an appropriate number of reserve officers, it formulates all policies and regulations. affecting the organization, distribution, and training of the National Guard and the Organized Reserves, and all policies and regulations affecting the appointment, assignment, promotion, and discharge of reserve officers. It performs such

941 Stat. 762, § 5 (Comp. St. Ann. Supp. 1923, § 1762a et seq.).