probably less numerous than the groups of idlers, who pass | their time in listening to stories, witnessing juggling tricks, attending the operations and lectures of empirics, gaping at objects of novelty, and too frequently endeavouring to obtain each other's money by gambling. "When the sun is oppressive the crowd retires, with the exception of the hucksters, who intercept his withering beams by temporary tilts. The erection of tents is a liberty not sanctioned by law, or, rather, contrary to the oral prohibitions of the petty officers who have the square in charge. Consequently, when men of authority make their appearance, the scene suddenly changes. From the moment of alarm there is the most hasty despatch until everything is removed that militates against their orders; their exit appears to be regarded as the signal of re-erection, and all things speedily revert to their former state. Such a show of subjection, with real contempt for authority, when it opposes individual gain, is said to be a prominent feature of the nation." It is during the latter part of the day that this place is the general resort; in the cool of the evening the crowd becomes most concentrated, and, as a consequence, the clamour is quite deafening. Yet, tumultuous as is the concourse, it is said to be very free from contention or breaches of the peace. The least appearance of an unlawful commotion calls forth a public officer, who resides for the purpose, in full view, and is exceedingly efficient in quelling a riot and scattering offenders. This functionary, if occasion should arise, summons to his aid one or two lictors, who, armed with scourges, and apparently vested with a large discretionary power in the use of them, soon compel the unruly to make a precipitate retreat. The guilty are frequently chased, and when caught, dragged along to the hall of justice by the pendant queue, which is cruelly drawn over the front of the head, and made to press the face towards the ground. "In surveying this mass of accountable beings," says the American Missionary, "there are many points of great interest to the eye of Christian compassion and benevolence. Independent of the associations which are common to all the heathen, there are facts of importance peculiar to this daily throng. Great numbers of them can read, and are attracted by every publication that meets their eyes. It is customary to paste up advertisements in the most public places of the square and the streets, and the groups generally found, through the day, gathered around them, show their eagerness to catch at every piece of information. What a place for the operations of the press, sacred to the cause of the Redeemer!" ships of that empire to visit Canton for the purposes of trade, Co. 2. Dutch Hong. HOG LANE. 5. Chow-Chow Hong. 7. Messrs. Russell and Co. OLD CHINA STREET. 11. Hong Merchants. NEW CHINA STREET. 14. Danish Hong COMMERCE. "The Chinese, considered as traders," says Mr. Macculloch, "are eminently active, persevering, and intelligent. They are, in fact, a highly-commercial people; and the notion that was once very generally entertained of their being peculiarly characterized by a contempt of commerce and of strangers, is as utterly unfounded as any notion can possibly be. Business is transacted at Canton with great despatch; and it is affirmed by Mr. Milburn, and by most of the witnesses examined before the late parliamentary committees, that there is no part of the world where cargoes may be sold and bought, unloaded and loaded, with more business-like speed and activity." An American writer gives the following illustration of this:-"While our officers," he says, "were at dinner with Mr. Lattimer, Mr. L. left the table for a moment, and returned so soon that he was scarcely missed. He informed his guests that he had made a sale while absent, of opium to the amount of two thousand dollars, and assured them that the Chinese are remarkably expert in business. Shopkeepers, from whom you may buy the most trifling article, supply ships with cargoes, worth two hundred thousand dollars, and will contract to do so with all the necessary security, in the length of time he had been absent from the table. They will manage all the smuggling, if any be necessary; get all the chops for duties; and deliver the articles on board the ship at Lintin, Whampoa, or Macao!" Canton is very ill-suited to be the emporium of the British trade with China. In the first place the climate is comparatively hot, and secondly, the difficulties of conveying commodities thither from the interior of the country is very great. Two grounds are assigned for the policy which the native government have adopted within the last century, of The front part or entrance to the factories is near, and confining the trade to this port. One is the desire to keep almost parallel to the bank of the river, and the intermeat a distance from the capital the danger of disputes arising diate space forms a general thoroughfare for persons who out of intercourse with foreigners; and certainly Canton is require any communication with the hongs, as well as those very nearly at the farthest possible distance from the capiwho have to embark and disembark at the different landing-tal. The other is a desire to obtain the largest possible places in front of them. There is no regular thoroughfare from the suburbs to the river-side through the private hongs, for the doors at the end looking towards the suburbs are locked day and night, and the front entrances are open only during the day; but there are two intervening streets and a lane, inhabited by Chinese shopkeepers, namely, Old and New China Streets, and Hog Lane, which are the general thoroughfares during the day; these, however, are also shut at night, according to the Chinese custom. Mr. Holman compares the foreign factories to a succession of private streets, with a few merchants residing in each, whose stores are contiguous to their dwelling houses. "Each hong has its respective designation; for instance, the first you arrive at on your right hand on coming up the river, where there is a landing-place directly in front of it, is called Creek Hong, in consequence of being next a creek that communicates from the river to the heart of the city. This creek is a great nuisance at high water to the neighbouring hong, for at such time it is covered with boats passing to and from the city, loaded either with merchandise coming in, or offal &c., going out. Other hongs crowd the bank as you advance, and are generally distinguished by the names of the respective nations whose flags they display. The English factory is best known by the name of the British hong, and is the most considerable of them all. From the advantage of its position it can at any time stop the general thoroughfare in front of the line of hongs: but this power is never exercised, except when there is a dispute with the Chinese, in which case the gates are strictly guarded to prevent the admission of obnoxious or turbulent persons. There is no Russian hong nor will the Chinese permit any revenue from internal duties on the transit of goods; these are known to yield a considerable sum. Sir George Staunton mentions a "very ingenious memoir," written by a gentleman, formerly holding the appointment of Inspector of Teas to the East India Company, in China; clearly showing, upon an accurate and detailed comparison, between the expense of conveying black teas from the country where they are produced to Canton, and that of their conveyance from thence to the port of Fu-tcheou-foo, the capital of the province of Fo-kien, that the privilege of admission to the latter port would have been attended with a saving to the East India Company of £150,000 annually, in the purchase of that description of tea alone, besides affording us the advantage of another opening for the introduction into China of our manufactures and productions. Fu-tcheou-foo is but a short distance from the sea, in that part of the pro vince of Fo-kien which lies opposite to the northern extremity of the island of Formosa; the largest Chinese vessels can ascend the river Mingho, almost to the very walls of the city, which is built upon its banks. BRITISH INTERCOURSE WITH CHINA. "As regards China," observes Mr. Auber, "we resort to a country in which we have not a foot of ground, and where we are confined to one port, at which our permanent residence is doubtful. The habits, manners, and customs are quite foreign to our own. The laws of China have been compared to a collection of consecutive mathematical problems, with this additional circumstance of perplexity, that a just and entire comprehension of each section individually, requires a general knowledge of those that follow no less than those which precede. Such laws are also frequently violated by those who are (appointed to be) their administrators and guardians; where their treatment of foreigners is proverbially contemptuous; and in their commercial dealings they have co scruple at imposition, if circumstances favour the practice. Such is the character of the people with whom we seek to maintain an intercourse. China has rejected every effort made by us, as well as by almost every other European state, to form a commercial intercourse with her, upon those principles which govern commercial relations in other countries." Sir George Staunton remarks, that upon the commencement of the present commercial intercourse of foreigners with the empire of China, nothing so much contributed to render them odious, both to the government and to the people in general, as their apparent disposition and tendency, upon almost all occasions, to a state of anarchy and disorder. The casual and unconnected adventurers who first traded to China, were entire strangers to the habits, customs, and language of the natives, as well as irreconcileably different from them in respect to all their national characteristics. It was obvious that to maintain order among such persons, and to regulate their intercourse with the natives, the ordinary rules and routine of Chinese justice would be, in most respects, utterly inadequate. As far, also, as the Chinese were enabled to judge, these foreigners were wholly without any internal government or system of control and subordination peculiar to themselves, which might have been capable of supplying the place, or at least, of coming in aid of the national laws; and which might, accordingly, have been accepted by the local authorities in China, as a sufficient substitute for those laws, in all cases in which their partial suspension or relaxation in favour of strangers was found unavoidable. Under the existing circumstances, therefore, the Chinese government deemed it necessary to supply the deficiency by the enactment of various new regulations and restrictions; and these were framed, as might naturally have been expected, with little regard to the feelings or interests of individuals who were not yet sufficiently powerful and united to command respect, nor sufficiently guarded and blameless in their general conduct to overcome prejudices and conciliate esteem. Thus, although the Chinese government did not absolutely prohibit foreign commerce, they resolved to provide against every hazard of ill consequences from its toleration, by the adoption and enforcement of the most jealous and vexatious precautions. posed upon foreigners and foreign trade in China; in the lapse of years, however, several changes have taken place, and though some of the objectionable regulations are still subsisting in full force, the greater number have been, at different periods, either expressly repealed, suffered to become obsolete, or modified in practice, "in a manner so judicious and beneficial," to use the language of Sir George Staunton, "as to render their ultimate effect upon the trade rather advantageous than otherwise." ITS EARLY HISTORY. THE Portuguese were the first Europeans who traded direct to China. They visited various ports of the country for some time free from the competition of other nations; and in 1555 they appear to have concentrated themselves at Macao, where they established a settlement. We hear of their ships frequenting the port of Canton in 1578, and trading along the coast of China; but in 1631, in consequence of some disputes which had arisen with the natives, they were restricted to their own settlement at Macao. Until the year 1637, the English trade with the Chinese was carried on indirectly, at the factories which the East India company had established in other parts of the East. In that year, Courteen's Association, which had recently obtained a patent from the crown, conferring upon them the same privileges as were enjoyed by the East India company, seeking to distinguish themselves by extraordinary enterprise, sent out a large adventure, under the management of Captain Weddell. On the 27th of June, he arrived with several vessels off Macao, and transmitted to the governor a letter from Charles the First. The Portuguese gave him a cold reception, complaining that the native authorities had made them responsible, and imposed a heavy fine on account of his unwelcome appearance. Finding that they were not allowed to communicate with Canton but by shallow straits, and were excluded from the spacious channel of the Bocca Tigris, he determined to trace out the latter passage for himself. He despatched a pinnace with fifty men, which in forty-eight hours reached the mouth of this estuary, and began to ascend. In a few days they were met by twenty junks, with a great mandarin on board, who called them into his presence, and began roughly to expostulate on their thus "searching out the prohibited entrances" into the dominions of so great a monarch. Yet, on their expressing friendly intentions, and an earnest desire to accomplish their object, they were allowed to proceed to the vicinity of Canton. There, howBy the strict letter of these regulations, the continued ever, the hoppo and some other chiefs persuaded them to residence of foreigners in China from year to year was return to Macao, making lavish promises, none of which totally forbidden; and during even the short period for were fulfilled; and the Portuguese having amused Weddell which they were allowed to remain on shore, for the neces- till their Japan fleet had sailed, issued an absolute interdict sary purposes of their trade, they were required strictly to against his trading any longer there. Determined, however, confine themselves to the small district which was allotted not to be thus baffled, he immediately weighed anchor with to them in the suburbs of the city of Canton. As a further his whole fleet for the river of Canton, and anchored in the security against turbulence and disorder, it was ordered that vicinity of a "desolate castle," the extensive ruins of which, all foreign ships should be disarmed of their guns and other we are informed, may still be seen immediately within the warlike stores, and that such articles should be retained in entrance of the Bocca Tigris. The Portuguese, meantime, the custody of the government during the stay of the ships studiously infused into the mandarins the belief, "that the in port, and restored only at the moment of their departure. English were rogues, thieves, and beggars." This, according This order, though it has probably been but seldom enforced, to Mr. Gutzlaff, was no difficult task; such a conviction in and that only at a very early period of the trade, appears, regard to every foreigner, being at all times rooted in the nevertheless, to this day, unrepealed upon the Chinese mind of the government. Under its impulse, they privily statute-books In a printed collection of the edicts of the conveyed into the castle forty-six pieces of cannon; and, when Emperor Keen-lung, (whose reign closed in 1795,) there is their preparations were completed, opened a fire upon one one which quotes this order; and after animadverting on of his barges. Weddell was not a man to submit to such an its neglect, directs that it may be duly enforced in future. outrage. He immediately caused his whole fleet to "berth Instead of foreigners being allowed to engage in anything themselves before the castle," and commenced a formidable like a free trade and intercourse with the natives generally, fire, which the other party returned; but none of their the whole of the foreign trade at the port of Canton was shot "touched so much as hull or rope;" and when they saw specially limited to ten or twelve Chinese merchants; and the English boats, having on board a hundred men, making these merchants were required, in return for the licenses for the shore, the fort was speedily evacuated. They forthgranted them, to undertake, jointly and severally, the most with opened a communication, requesting a deputation to extensive responsibility to the government, not only for the be sent to Canton; and when Mounteney and Robinson, due payment of all the duties and port-charges to which two supercargoes, repaired thither, the authorities threw the the foreigners might render themselves liable, but also blame on the Portuguese, granted permission to trade, and generally for their orderly behaviour and good conduct. even to fortify any position outside of the river. These Besides these licensed merchants, a few other persons were gentlemen agreed to pay 10,000 reals in duties, and, withpermitted to attend upon foreigners in the capacity of out further negotiation, began to load their vessels. The linguists (interpreters), or compradores (victuallers); but storming of the castle, however, rankled in the mind of the with the exception of these persons and the individuals in natives, who soon repented of this good treatment. Seven their immediate employ, the natives in general were with-fire-junks were sent down the river, to destroy, if possible, held, by the denunciation of very severe penalties, from either frequenting the houses of foreigners or holding any species of intercourse with them. Such are the restrictions and disabilities originally im the English fleet; which, however, avoided their attack, but the supercargoes were thrown into prison and almost starved. Mounteney determined to extricate himself, set fire to his apartment, threatening to burn the city; and having thus made a passage, he rushed into the street, with a sword in one hand, and a purse in the other, to purchase provisions. On learning these treacherous proceedings, Weddell levied open war, laying waste the adjacent towns and villages, attacking and burning several vessels belonging to the imperial fleet. These cogent arguments brought the authorities once more to their senses. The merchants were requested to write to him, desiring that he would forbear any further acts of hostility, and "all would be well." They themselves were set at liberty, and allowed to conclude their transactions, which they did with all despatch, though much thwarted by the Portuguese. Mounteney is said to have entered into an agreement, by which his constituents were to pay annually 2000 taëls, (£666,) in return for free trade and residence. Rumour seems to have represented this voyage as highly profitable, since the company's agent at Masulipatam wrote, "They have been to China, at a place called Canton, where they made such a voyage, that we conceive never Englishmen were so richly laden as they are with goods, and yet they flow with gold and silver in abundance." There is no mention in the captain's despatch of any such splendid success; nor do the association appear to have taken any steps to follow up the advantage. The trade continued for some time in a state of depression. In 1664, the trade in tea commenced, that article being imported to the amount of one hundred pounds. On the 13th of February, the directors wrote thus to Madras: "In regard thea is grown to be a commodity here, and we have occasion to make presents therein to our great friends at court, we would have you send us yearly five or six canisters of the very best and freshest thea. That which will colour the water in which it is infused most of a greenish complexion, is generally best accepted." The import for general use had, it appears, been chiefly a private concern of the officers; but the market had thereby been so much over-stocked, that "trash thea from Bantam" had been sold❘ for 4d. and 6d. a-pound. The trade was now, therefore, to be carried on altogether by the company themselves. Its progress, however, was severely checked by the imposition, in 1689, of an enormous duty of 5s. a-pound, which rendered it impossible to introduce with advantage any teas except those of the very finest description. In 1693 the staple commodities are said to have been Nan-king silks, damasks, satins, velvets, gold thread, raw-silk, China and lacquered ware, a good quantity of fine tea, some fans and screens. In 1699, there were ordered 300 tubs (chests) of the finer green teas, and eighty of Bohea. In the month of November in this last-mentioned year, the East India company appointed a president with a council or select committee of four, two factors, and five writers, under whose commercial jurisdiction were placed "the whole empire of China and the adjacent islands." In 1701 Chusan, Amoy, and Canton, were the ports with which the company's trade was carried on; the first was deemed the most desirable, but they were compelled to quit it the following year, though afterwards induced to return. The company soon, however, acknowledged that "they were weary of the trade to Chusan and Amoy ;" and they seem at one time to have intended to forsake those ports, and use Banjarmassin, in the island of Borneo, as a depôt. It was found, however, that at Canton the traffic could be conducted on a considerable scale; the factors were, indeed, exposed to many hardships, and had ground for heavy complaints, but the increasing importance of the tea-trade made the company willing to encounter many difficulties. In 1715 the intercourse with Canton, according to Mr. Auber, had assumed somewhat of the character of a regular trade. At stated seasons ships were despatched from England, each having a supercargo, to conduct the sales and purchases. These vessels proceeded first to Macao, and thence to the Bocca Tigris, where the supercargoes were admitted to an audience with the hoppo, or Chinese commissioner of customs, with whom they stipulated for certain privileges, such as the enjoyment of free trade with all Chinese, without distinction, liberty to hire Chinese servants, to purchase provisions, &c., for their factory and ships, and other similar articles. In 1720 the formidable confederacy of the cohong first appeared, but only as a combination of private merchants endeavouring to procure a monopoly price for their goods. Our countrymen refused to treat with them, and complained to the viceroy, when the parties were called into his presence and publicly reprimanded. In 1728 the merchants were driven almost to despair, by an addition of ten per cent, on their cargoes, while they were studiously excluded from all appeal to persons in power. Yet, as on recent occasions, when a small party acted with determination, and paid no regard to any prohibition, they found little difficulty in penetrating even to the palace of the Isong-tou, or viceroy. This was twice effected during that disastrous year. On the first occasion they saw his excellency himself, and received some fair promises; but on the second, a chung-ya, or subordinate mandarin, was deputed to receive them. He treated them roughly, upbraiding them with their very unceremonious mode of entry; and, on their threatening to leave Canton unless redress was obtained, said, "they might go if they pleased; other ships would come." He complained much of their troubling him about such a trifling affair. They replied, "that their trade, and the wrongs endured, were no trifles to them;" but he told them "they must apply to the merchants to get them a hearing." They answered very reasonably, "that as the grievances arose from the merchants, how could it be supposed that they would become instruments in any just accusations against themselves; the present case witnessed they would not." To this no reply was made, but the chung-ya finally promised that he would order his people to adjust the disputed points in an equitable manner. He dismissed them with a strict injunction "never to trouble him again on such trifling occasions." In the year 1736 the emperor, Këën-lung, (who reigned till 1796,) ascended the throne, and the year of his accession was marked by the abolition of an oppressive duty of 4 per cent.,-although the boon was coupled with conditions utterly inadmissible, and which the Chinese were therefore bribed to connive at the neglect of. About this time, also, commenced the security-system, from which the British trade has so severely suffered. A few merchants, called the Hong, were nominated, one of whom was required, on the arrival of every English ship, to become security for the regular payment of the duties; in return for which the representatives of the company were obliged to allow him a corresponding advantage. These persons, burdened by the above obligation, and having also 10,000l. to remit in presents to the imperial court, found it necessary to indemnify themselves by an exorbitant price laid on the commodities. The increasing annoyance to which the English trade at Canton was exposed, led the company to seek to re-open the communication with Amoy. But they found their condition still worse at that port; and were prevented from continuing the attempt, if they had been disposed to do so, by the decree which Keen-lung issued in 1757, strictly limiting the intercourse of Europeans to Canton. This made no change in the actual course of the English trade, which had long centred in that port; yet it acted unfavourably on the interest of the factory. Hitherto, amid all their grievances, the threat of removing to another, and thus depriving the mandarins of the emoluments which they derived from the traffic, had been used with the most beneficial effect. Now, the only menace left to them was, that of quitting China altogether,-a design which neither party could believe to be seriously entertained. In 1759, two years after Canton had obtained a monopoly of the trade, when the authorities were no longer restrained by the apprehension that foreigners would resort elsewhere, the limitation of our dealings to a few licensed Chinese was made part of the established system of trade, and those individuals, designated Security or Hong merchants, were regularly incorporated under the name of the "Cohong," with whom Europeans were permitted to deal; all trans actions with other Chinese, excepting, indeed, petty shopkeepers, being declared illegal. In 1771, the supercargoes congratulate themselves on having procured the dissolution of this obnoxious cohong, at the cost of 100,000 taëls, (from £30,000 to £35,000,) which they actually expended on the occasion. In 1779-80, however, the same cohong appears again in full operation, and was made the instrument, as it has continued ever since, of levying an additional tax on foreign trade, under the designation of Consoo Fund, the origin of which is thus related. Debts amounting to 3,808,075 Spanish dollars, were owing by Chinese to British subjects, which the latter were unable to recover; and on their representation of the fact to the Madras government, Captain Panton, of his Majesty's ship, Sea-horse, was requested to proceed to China, in order to urge payment, and having instructions from Admiral Sir Edward Vernon, as well as from Sir Edward Hughes, to insist on an audience with the viceroy. This audience, after some delay, and not without the use of threats on the part of the British commander, was obtained, when Captain Panton received a fair and satisfactory answer to his application. "This measure,” says Captain King, who visited Canton at the period in the Discovery, "had occasioned very serious alarm at Canton. The Chinese merchants who had incurred the debt contrary to the commercial laws of their own country, and denied, in part, the justice of the demand, were afraid that intelligence of this would be carried to Peking; and that the emperor, who has the character of a just and rigid prince, might punish them with the loss of their fortunes, if not of their lives. On the other hand, the select committee, to whom the cause of the claimants was strongly recommended by the presidency of Madras, were extremely apprehensive lest they should embroil themselves with the Chinese government at Canton, and, by that means, bring, perhaps, irreparable mischief on the company's affairs in China. For I was further informed that the mandarins were always ready to take occasion, even on the slightest grounds, to put a stop to their trading; and, that it was often with great difficulty, and never without certain expense, that they could get such restraints taken off. These impositions were daily increasing; and, indeed, I found it a prevailing opinion in all the European factories, that they should soon be reduced either to quit the commerce of that country, or to bear the same indignities to which the Dutch are subjected in Japan." The result was, that the emperor published an edict, ordering the debts to be paid, but intimating great displeasure at their having been contracted, and prohibiting any such transaction from taking place in future. To guard against it, he directed that no communication should henceforth be held between the British and the merchants, unless through the medium of certain mandarins whom he named. The dealers alleging, doubtless with truth, that these officers would not perform this duty without a consideration, raised the prices of their teas, while they lowered those of the company's imports. The hong monopoly, in spite of every remonstrance, has been ever since maintained; though it has undergone much practical mitigation. These privileged individuals have lent their name to others, called outside merchants, who are thus enabled to traffic with the English. For this accommodation, however, a liberal compensation is, of course, exacted, which must be laid on the price of the goods. Ever since this period the system of conducting the trade has been through hong merchants. In 1828, in consequence of the prohibition, under severe penalties, of dealings between Europeans and native traders not belonging to the privileged body, some foreigners petitioned the hoppo This functionary gave them a very decisive answer, in the usual style of Chinese courtesy: "The said barbarians," he observed, "a short time ago, repeatedly presented dunning petitions for things contrary to the law, which shows their stupid rashness. From pity to the remote barbarians I did not inflict chastisement, but ordered the merchants to deliberate safely and manage. I likewise ordered them to communicate my orders to the said barbarian merchants, to obey the fixed regulations in their trade. If the said shopmen dare to stir up the barbarian merchants to confused petitioning, or if they presume to trade with the barbarians, the moment they are discovered and caught, their crime shall positively be punished with severity. Their perverseness and stupidity have reached the acmé." OCCUPATION OF MACAO BY THE BRITISH. In the year 1808, when Buonaparte nad developed his designs for securing the kingdoms of Spain and Portugal, an English force was landed at Macao, in order to occupy that settlement, and prevent its seizure by the French. This event, as Mr. Auber remarks, is deserving of particular attention, as it not only shows that we have recocognised the right of the Portuguese to the settlement of Macao, but marks the jealousy with which the Chinese view any approach to their territories by a foreign force, although with no hostile intention towards their nation, and evinces their determination to have withstood, however ineffectually, the extreme measures to which Admiral Drury, (then in command of the naval force in India,) manifested his intention to resort, in the prosecution of the service in which he was engaged. It was in the month of March 1808 that the select committee of supercargoes at Canton communicated to the Bengal government, a vague report which had reached them, of the intention of the French with regard to the settlement of Macao. It was suggested that Macao ought to be placed in a better state of defence, and an opinion was offered, that no apprehension need be entertained of embarrassment from the Chinese government, if permission were obtained from the Portuguese for that purpose, although in fact, as it afterwards appeared, the Portuguese were under a pledge to the Chinese government, not to admit the troops of any nation into Macao without their previous consent. The Bengal government, however, upon the receipt of this information, resolved that a military force should be sent to occupy Macao; but the commanding officer was directed not to take any steps without the knowledge and concurrence of the select committee, who were cautioned to bear in mind the orders issued by Lord Wellesley in 1801, for guarding against the effect of jealousy on the part of the Chinese government. About the middle of September, Admiral Drury, who commanded the naval part of the expedition, learnt that a considerable French force was off Java, and suggested the expediency of applying to the Chinese authorities for leave to land the troops at Macao. To this the select committee objected; and on the 18th of September they resolved, in opposition to the declared sentiments of the governor of Macao, and to the known feelings of the Chinese, to land the troops at once. When the landing took place, a letter was received from the hoppo, or chief officer of customs, protesting decidedly against the step. The admiral wrote to the viceroy, explaining the motives which had led to it; the reply of the viceroy contained a strong remonstrance against the adoption of such a measure without permission, and a threat of representing the whole affair to the emperor. The Chinese local authorities issued an order for the withdrawal of the troops, and declared that they would entreat the emperor to interdict in future the commerce of our ships. The Chinese troops, too, were ordered down to compel our troops to evacuate the town; and an intimation was given that in the event of non-compliance, they would burn the ships at Whampoa, secure the English, and put to death or otherwise punish them. A second division of troops was landed in October; and the select committee asserted "the impossibility of giving way to the Chinese so long as they persevered in their haughty conduct." They afterwards sent a letter to the viceroy, requesting that a person might be appointed to receive their representation upon the whole question; and, in reply, were informed that the viceroy had seen the letter, but did not think a compliance necessary, "as the troops must be removed, their remaining on shore being contrary to the law of the empire." In a subsequent conference with two of the Chinese merchants, the committee stated, that during the haughty conduct of the viceroy, the admiral could not remove any troops, as it might have the appearance of fear." ་ The admiral then demanded an audience of the viceroy, who did not return any answer. Addresses were subsequently sent to him, but he remained firm in declaring the absolute necessity of removing the troops. The admiral declined advancing any further, " as the sword was half out of the scabbard, and his duty forbade him making war with China." At length the president of the select committee intimated his intention of ordering all British subjects to quit Canton in eight-and-forty hours; and declared it to be his opinion that the best effects would follow if his majesty's ships wero brought to an anchorage higher up the river. Two days afterwards the president received a communication, in which the viceroy stated, that his (the viceroy's) conduct had been marked by the greatest forbearance; that he should not commence hostilities, though if we ventured to make war with China he was quite prepared for it; and that if the committee thought proper to remove the ships, he had no objection, only they must not expect to be permitted to return. At the same time, troops were brought, and encamped on the neighbouring hills; and it was threatened that fire-vessels should be sent down amongst the company's shipping. On the 4th of December the select committee assembled at Macao, to receive the emperor's edict for withdrawing the troops before the continuance of the trade could be permitted. Knowing, as you ought to know," said this boasting document, "that the Portuguese inhabit a territory belonging to the celestial empire, how could you suppose that the French should ever venture to molest them? If they dared, our warlike tribes should attack, defeat, and chase them from the face of the country. Aware of this truth why did you bring your soldiers here? Repent and withdraw immediately; permission to trade shall then be restored. But should you persist and remain, the hatches of your ships shall not be opened." 66 A chop was addressed by the viceroy to the admiral, with the emperor's decree. A similar document was also addressed by him to the senior commander, captains, officers, petty-officers, and others belonging to the English ships at the port of Whampoa, and "delivered to the said senior commander, Captain Milliken Craig, of the Elphinstone, by the mandarins deputed by the Tsung-tuh, under a canopy of state, surrounded by Chinese guards, under arms, erected for the occasion on French Island, on the side of a hill, having a Chinese camp on each side on hills, each about one mile distant, and all in view from the van ships of the Hon. Company's fleet, moored in line of battle within gunshot." This curious document is worthy of perusal. "I, the mandarin Vu, by favour of my prince Tsung-tuh of the two provinces of Kwang-tung and Kwang-se, member of the Tribunal of War, &c., direct this letter to the captains, officers, passengers, and others, belonging to the English ships, to warn you, that being certain that your bad kingdom is situated on an island of the sea, and that you originally employed yourselves in making watches, to enable you to pay your taxes; afterwards, by the especial and profound goodness of our great emperor, who was desirous of benefiting you, he granted you permission to come to this empire to trade. Behold, what exalted and profound virtues belong to him!!! Notwithstanding this, the admiral of your kingdom, regardless of the laws, has brought here, for the first time, foreign soldiers, and, without leave, introduced them into Macao, and your chief supercargo uniting with him, they are with one accord making disturbances. This being the case, I informed the emperor, from whom I have just received a decree, in virtue of which I again send mandarins deputed to inform them that if they persist in detaining the soldiers, a great many troops shall be immediately despatched to destroy and extinguish them, and to terminate this business; for the consequences of which, the admiral and chief supercargo will be responsible; but you, captains, officers, passengers, and others, people of the ships, shall be free from all responsibility, if you remain quietly in the observance of the laws; and, after the soldiers of your nation shall be entirely withdrawn, I shall feel it my duty to inform the emperor, praying him to have the goodness to permit you to carry on your trade as formerly. But if you, giving ear to and obeying the admiral and chief supercargo, unite yourselves to them to create disturbances, when afterwards our innumerable soldiers shall arrive, who shall destroy and burn you, even if you were as hard as stone or jasper, I shall then not be able to use you with any indulgence, nor free you from the net of the law in which you will be ensnared; and in order that you may be obedient and discreet, I direct this chop to you. In the 13th year of the emperor Kia-king, on the 17th day of this 10th moon." (3rd December, 1808.) The commanders of the company's ships at Whampoa, in their reply stated, that they had the exalted honour to acknowledge the receipt of his excellency's most gracious letter, delivered to them on French Island, by the two mandarins, whom, they were informed, it had been his condescending pleasure to send to them-that their only object in visiting China was commerce-that they endeavoured to venerate and obey its laws, but durst not, however, depart from allegiance to their own country, or to those who were dignified with its most exalted representation-that they understood that their admiral, at the request of the Portuguese, had landed some troops at Macao, to help them to defend it against attacks from the French-that that wicked nation, ever since they murdered their sovereign, had waged war upon all nations within their reach, and were understood to be then marching by land to make war upon the celestial empire, as the British navy prevented them by sea-and that they therefore most humbly implored his excellency to order the trade to be opened, that they might thereby find employment in the quiet habits of industry, &c. The viceroy, in his answer told them that, seeing they did not think proper to alter their way of thinking, he plainly knew that they had joined their opinions with those of their superiors, the admiral and president, that if they did not wish to trade they might take away their ships as they thought proper, and if they did they must remain peaceable and obey the laws. In the meanwhile the president, instead of relaxing, had begun to be more active in his preparations for defence; the batteries of the Bocca Tigris had fired upon the ships going up and down, and obliged one of them to return the fire, and on the 6th of December another camp had been observed to be formed upon the heights of French Island. It was upon the following day that the viceroy sent his answer to the commanders of the company's fleet; and on that day also he wrote to the admiral that he would cause all debts to be paid, stating for the last time "that while there remained a single soldier in Macao and the laws disobeyed, they should not trade," and if he hesitated for a moment, "innumerable troops would be sent to destroy him." On the 8th the president gave way, the admiral remonstrating against holding out any longer; a convention was concluded on the 10th, and the troops were embarked on the 15th. "Thus," says Mr. Auber, the late secretary of the East India company, "after fruitless discussion for weeks, and the adoption of every measure short of hostilities to support the original plan of occupying Macao, the Chinese adhered to the demand with which they set out, namely, the withdrawal of the troops, to which the committee were obliged to submit before the trade was permitted to be resumed. Thus affording another decided proof of the inflexibility with which the Chinese insist on the observance of their laws and regulations." Other writers view the matter in a different light, and think we did not succeed because we did not go far enough. Mr. Gutzlaff thinks that the British national honour was stained for ever; and says that a pyramid, recording the victory of Chinese cowardice over British imprudence is erected near the spot whence the admiral retreated. "He withdrew with his garrison from Macao; the English nation was viewed with greater contempt; it was written down in the Chinese annals, We have beaten the English; The undaunted veterans of the Nile and Trafalgar had retreated." Mr. Mc Leod remarks upon this event, that after the retreat of Admiral Drury, there was no end to the gasconading of the Chinese. "They considered his retiring as a great victory gained, and it is celebrated as such by an inscription in one of their pagodas :-an inscription, by the way, which ought to come down." DISPUTES OF 1829 AND 1830. THE years 1829 and 1830 were marked by a series of vexatious discussions, excited apparently, less by Chinese encroachment, than by a strong desire entertained by the committee to liberate themselves from certain annoyances to which they had long been exposed. The entry-duty, of 2780 dollars, on every vessel, which had not fallen heavy on the large ships from Europe, was almost prohibitory on the small craft which carried on the traffic with India. The refusal of permission to the English to bring their wives and families to Canton, and to use sedan-chairs, the only commodious vehicle which could be procured, was resented as a grievance. The exactions, too, levied from the hongmerchants, by which several of them had been reduced to bankruptcy, greatly embarrassed the trade. The committee seem to have been chiefly encouraged to assume a high tone by recent observations on the radical weakness of the native government, and the facility with which they yielded to displays of superior power. By a repetition of these it was conceived that they might be overawed into granting any reasonable demand. Application was made for a naval force from Bengal; but the governor-general declined interfering, and referred them to the directors at home. They had at one time formed, and even announced their resolution, to stop the trade and leave China; but this design was not carried into execution. The natives acceeded to the wishes of the English, so far as to create new hong-merchants in the room of those who had become insolvent. But every other demand was repelled with their usual determination, and even with contumely. In their replies and proclamations, the following expressions occur:-"Since the said foreigners come to trade, it is incumbent on them to obey implicitly the orders of government. If they dislike the restrictions, it is perfectly competent of them not to take the trouble to come from so great a distance. The contemptuous resisistance of the foreigners arises from no other than a special design to coerce us by the circumstance of their paying much duty. The celestial empire views these duties as really not of the importance of a fibre or particle of dust. How can the chief Baynes (the president of the select committee) resist the prohibition and orders, and bring with him a barbarian woman (Mrs. Baynes) to Canton! If she will remove early to Macao, he will avoid a severe scrutiny. As to sitting in sedan-chairs, it is in itself a small business; but foreigners being in the provincial city, have hitherto not been allowed to ascend sedanchairs. The said foreigners, ignorant how to be excited to |