ress, and witnessed its benefits, I can confidently recommend it as an invaluable improvement which by a wonderful combination Hair of economy in expense and rapidity of instruction has created a new era in education; and I am desirous that all our common schools should be supplied with teachers of this description. As this system operates with the same efficacy in education that labor-saving machinery does in the useful arts, it will be readily perceived that it is peculiarly adapted to this country.”

The Training of Teachers. Clinton was not afraid to follow his argument whithersoever it led. He saw clearly that if education was of such transcendent importance to the state it could not, to accomplish its mission, be left in the hands of incompetence— to jacks-of-all-trades and masters of none. In the speech of 1820, he said: "The education of youth is an important trust, and an honorable vocation, but it is often committed to unskillful hands. Liberal encouragement ought unquestionably to be dispensed for increasing the number of competent instructors." But the argument is stated in full in the message of 1826:

"Ten years of the life of a child may now be spent in a common school. In two years the elements of instruction may be acquired and the remaining eight years must now be spent in repetition of idleness, unless the teachers of the common schools are competent to instruct in the higher branches of knowledge. The outlines of geography, algebra, mineralogy, agriculture, chemistry, mechanical philosophy, surveying, geometry, astronomy, political economy and ethics might be communicated by able preceptors without essential interference with the calls of domestic industry.

"The vocation of the teacher in his influence on the characters and destinies of the rising and all future generations has either not been fully understood or duly estimated. It is or ought to be ranked among the learned professions. With the full admission of the merits of several who now officiate in that capacity, still it must be conceded that the information of many of the instructors of the common school does not extend beyond rudimental education-that our expanding population requires constant access to their numbers; it is necessary that some new plan

V. 2, p. 903.

for obtaining able teachers be devised. I, therefore, recommend a seminary for the education of teachers in the monitorial system of instruction, and in those useful branches which are proper to engraft on elementary attainments. A compliance with this recommendation will have a benign influence on individual happiness and social prosperity."

He follows his argument still further and now makes bold to recommend what the twentieth century has not yet accomplished— a central high school in each county. He says in 1827, in language somewhat similar to that of the message of 1826:

"Too many (teachers) are destitute of the requisite qualifications and perhaps no inconsiderable number are unable to teach beyond rudimental instruction. Perhaps one-fourth of our population is annually instructed in our common schools and ought the mind and the morals of the rising and perhaps the destinies of all future generations to be entrusted to the guardianship of incompetence? The scale of instruction must be elevated, the standard of education ought to be raised, and a central school on the monitorial plan ought to be established in each county for the education of teachers and as exemplars for other momentous purposes connected with the improvement of the human mind."s

The recommendation of his last message (1828), indicates how this desirable object may be obtained. He says:

"In the meantime I consider it my duty to recommend a law authorizing the supervisor of each county to raise a sum not exceeding two thousand dollars provided that the same sum is sub-4-scribed by individuals for the erection of a suitable edifice for a monitorial high school in the county town. I can conceive of no reasonable objection to the adoption of a measure so well calculated to raise the character of our school masters and to double the power of our artizans by giving them a scientific education."

Supervision. Clinton recognized that supervision was a factor in the effectiveness of the school system. In 1826 he made the unusual suggestion:

"I consider the system of our common schools as the palladium of our freedom, for no reasonable apprehension can be enter

TV. 3, pp. 115-16.

V. 3, p. 159.

tained of its subversion, as long as the great body of the people are enlightened by education. To increase the funds, to extend the benefits, and to remedy the defects of this excellent system, is worthy of your most deliberate attention. The officer who now so ably presides over that department is prevented by his other official duties from visiting our schools in person, nor is he indeed clothed with this power. A visitatorial authority for the purpose of detecting abuses in the application of funds, of examining into the modes and plans of instruction and of suggesting improvements, would unquestionably be attended with the most propitious results."

Its Extent

He now follows his argument in another direction-the persons who are to profit by this education. It is part of this sociological conception of education that education shall be universal-truly universal; that it shall reach all classes and members of society; the male and the female; the white, and the black, and the red; the dumb, the blind; the man young in crime and, if possible, the hardened criminal.

Women. The higher education of women was, at the beginning of the nineteenth century, a novel proposition; but Clinton thoroughly believed in it and urged it upon an unwilling generation insistently and forcefully. In 1819 Clinton said: "Beyond initiatory instruction, the education of the female sex is utterly ex-. cluded from the contemplation of our laws."10 In January, 1820, after noting that the Waterford Academy for female education incorporated at the last session, had already attained to great usefulness and prosperity, he proceeds to say: "As this is the first attempt ever made in this country to promote the education of the female sex by the patronage of government; as our first and best impressions are derived from material affection; and as the female character is inseparably connected with happiness at home, and respectability abroad, I trust that you will not be deterred by common-place ridicule from cxtending your munificence to this meritorious institution."11

Indians and Africans. Just as Clinton drew no sex line in education, so he drew no color line. "In attending to the general

10V. 2, p. 972.

12

interest of the community," he said in his speech of January, 1820, "let us not overlook the concerns of two unfortunate races of men, who will be forever insulated from the great body of people, by uncontrollable circumstances, and who ought to receive our benevolence and sympathy. I refer to the Indian and African population." Then, with reference to the Indians, so long as they continue amongst us, he recommends that a board of commissioners be appointed, selected from the religious societies who have interested themselves in the welfare of the Indians. This board shall have power, "to investigate their situation and wants, to diffuse among them education, agriculture, morality and religion, and to recommend to the Legislature such measures as shall be most conducive to the attainment of these desirable objects."13

And with reference to the African population a similar recommendation is made: "It is due, however, to justice to say that the establishment of schools and churches for their benefit, under the auspices of benevolent men, has had a benign influence in the improvement of their minds and morals; and it is therefore believed that the benevolence of the State will never be withheld from the encouragement of such laudable undertakings."1

Deaf and Dumb. In the speech of January, 1820, and immediately preceding the last recommendations, there is to be found the following statement:

The

"Among the numerous and interesting objects which have experienced the benevolence of individuals and the countenance of government, it is pleasing to observe that the interests of the dumb and the insane have not been overlooked; two unfortunate descriptions of our fellow creatures shut out from the blessings of social communion and entitled to our deepest sympathy."15 annual grant of ten thousand dollars to the governors of the New York Hospital, for an asylum for lunatics, on the Island of New York, is commended, as the judicious direction of the fund by its benevolent administrators. So the New York Institution for the Instruction of the Deaf and Dumb, is approved as having "de

12V. 2, p. 975. 13V. 2, p. 977. 14V. 2, p. 979.

served well of the friends of humanity," and he cherishes, "the fullest confidence that you (the Legislature) will take this interesting establishment under your especial protection, and that your munificence will only be exceeded by its merits."16 One way Clinton suggests of supplying its deficiencies is by taking a liberal portion of the school fund applicable to the city of New York. It is significant that a part of the general school fund is selected for the education of this special class.

Criminals. The criminal class was of special concern to Clinton, as would be expected of one holding Clinton's views. And were Clinton living to-day, there would be no one more thoroughly interested and more actively engaged in our modern system of reform schools, children's courts, patrol system, and other similar developments of the modern sociological movement. The question of the New York House of Refuge and the penitentiary system occupies a large amount of space in the messages. It is treated in the speeches of 1819, January, 1820, November, 1820, 1822, and in the message of 1825.

In 1825, in urging upon the Legislature the necessity of being liberal in the support of education, Clinton points with pride "to one fact derived from past experience." It is: "Of the many thousands who have been instructed in our free schools in the city of New York, there is not a single instance known of anyone having been convicted of crime." Apparently the fundamental proposition is supported by experience.

In 1818, Clinton pointed out that the existing system was a failure. In 1819, he made the following vigorous statement: "The state of our penitentiaries requires your serious consideration and must excite your sincere regret. As the only legitimate object of punishment is to prevent crime, by reforming the offender, by incapacitating him from perpetrating future mischief, or by deterring the others by the infliction; and, as none of these consequences has resulted, the failure must be imputed to the system, its defective arrangement or improper administration. As it has succeeded in other places, and is strongly recommended by the voice of reason, as well as humanity, the fault must be as

16V. 2, p. 974.