practical, with two distinct professional faculties, the faculty of the chemical sciences and the faculty of the mechanic arts.

The number of students in 1867 was 600, of whom 80 were aided by the state, and 50 of whom were gratuitously supported-the rest paying $24 per annum for theoretical instruction and $30 for practical training in the workshops and laboratories.

In the way of material facilities the institution is well provided, having large workshops well equipped with tools and machinery, laboratories for applied chemistry, a factory for products obtained by the decomposition of wood by distillation, a distillery, a dyeing establishment, a gas-factory, and a museum of models of the latest improvements of every mechanical sort deemed desirable for introduction from foreign countries, as well as such models of superior quality as are executed by the pupils themselves.

The Russian government is also establishing schools of this character in other parts of the empire, and it is understood that the movement has received a new impetus from the demonstrations made in this department by so many of the progressive nations at the Exposition.

WURTEMBERG.

The Royal Polytechnic School of Wurtemberg, at Stuttgart, organized in 1862, has thus soon acquired a very honorable position among institutions of its class. It includes a professional school of architecture, a school of engineering, a school for machinists, a school of technical chemistry-each comprising three years' courses; and a school of pharmacy, embracing two courses of one year each.

The number of professors and other teachers is 42, and, notwithstanding embarrassment is now felt, owing to the non-completion of new structures designed for its use, it numbers 300 to 400 students, and bids fair to rival ere long its flourishing neighbor at Carlsruhe. New buildings are just being completed at a cost of nearly 1,000,000 florins.

POLYTECHNIC SCHOOLS OF OTHER EUROPEAN STATES.

Other continental polytechnic schools are found in several of the European countries; as in Holland, where, within the past three years, a school has been founded at Delft, and is now receiving aid from the state to the amount of $37,700 per annum; in Belgium, in which country there are several schools of this type, though not bearing the usual name; in Westphalia and some of the other smaller German states; and in Spain and Portugal. But at present the schools of these countries are more limited in their sphere of influence than those of which an account is given above, and, so far as they relate to the purpose of this report, only serve to show how almost universally on the European Continent does the sentiment already prevail that a wider and more generous diffusion of a knowledge of the sciences, and of their applications to the practical arts, is essential to the progress of civilization.

GREAT BRITAIN.

Scientific and polytechnic education in Great Britain, for reasons which might be made to appear but which are not necessary to the objects of this report, has had comparatively less development within the past few years than on the continent. But even there very much has been accomplished. The keen criticism of many of the real statesmen of the United Kingdom upon the British system of education and upon the character of their leading institutions of learning, and their warning that, unless more attention be given to applications of science and of technical art, the glory of British supremacy in the leading branches of manufacture must pass to other countries-these have not been without results.

Polytechnic schools, distinctively so called, have not multiplied. But, under the form of schools of the arts; schools and academies of design; mechanics' institutes, museums, with halls in which lectures are given on various branches of applied science; universities for the working classes, such as the Andersonian University at Glasgow, in which workingmen and others have the advantage of regular courses of lectures on the sciences, and in the other departments of learning, by able men; learned and industrial societies, with fully organized systems of instruction by lectures and discussions, like those of London, Manchester, Dublin, Glasgow, and Edinburgh-under all these various forms do we find the work of polytechnic schools more or less efficiently performed. Nor can this be the end of development in the direction of scientific education in Great Britain. The Exposition of 1867 has added yet more than its predecessors to the argument of necessity, and her far-seeing statesmen and distinguished cultivators of science, thus strongly re-enforced, will be enabled to accomplish more within the next ten years than in any two decades before.

UNITED STATES.

Polytechnic schools in the United States, if the enumeration be limited to such as are distinctively so called, will number but three, to wit, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology at Boston, the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute at Troy, New York, and the Polytechnic College of the State of Pennsylvania at Philadelphia. A brief notice of the first of these must represent the whole class in this connection.

The Massachusetts Institute of Technology, organized in 1862, and then and since endowed to the extent of nearly half a million dollars, embraces within its plan: 1. A school of industrial sciences. 2. A museum of arts. 3. A society of arts.

The objects of the institute, as set forth, are:

1. To provide a full course of scientific studies and practical exercises for students seeking to qualify themselves for the professions of the mechanical engineer, civil engineer, practical chemist, engineer of mines, and builder and architect.

2. To furnish a general education founded upon the mathematical, physical, and natural sciences, English and other modern languages, and mental and political science.

3. To provide courses of evening instruction in the main branches of knowledge above referred to for persons of either sex, who are unable to devote themselves to study during the day, but who desire to avail themselves of systematic evening lessons and lectures.

Candidates for admission to the school must have attained the age of sixteen, and are examined in arithmetic, plane geometry, elementary algebra, and such other English branches as are ordinarily taught in a high school or academy.

The regular courses of study extend through four years. Students may enter in advanced classes, but must, in such cases, have the same qualifications as to age, &c., as if they had entered at the beginning and reached the class or division where admitted in due order of study.

In the first two years the instruction is general, and common to all classes of students preparing for the technical courses, embracing, in general terms, the following branches:

First year. Algebra; solid geometry; plane trigonometry and its applications; mechanical drawing, and the commencement of descriptive geometry; free-hand drawing; elementary mechanics; chemistry, with manipulations; English language and literature, and French or German. Second year. Continuation of same studies into the higher mathematics, with descriptive astronomy, surveying, and experimental physics. The courses in the third and fourth year are technical, embracing the necessary continuations of the mathematical and other scientific studies, with their applications to the various scientific professions above enumerated.

At the completion of the respective courses special diplomas are conferred upon all who pass the required examinations.

The institute is already well provided with the means of illustration, demonstration, chemical analysis, &c., and is constantly increasing them. But the three polytechnic schools first above enumerated by no means constitute the list of really polytechnic schools in the United States. The colleges of agriculture and the mechanic arts endowed by the congressional act of 1862, and already established in Brown University, at Providence; in the Sheffield Scientific School of Yale College, at New Haven; in Dartmouth College, at Hanover, New Hampshire; in the State University of Vermont, at Burlington; in the Cornell University, at Ithaca, New York; the Maryland Agricultural College, near Washington City; the Massachusetts College of Agriculture; the Illinois Industrial University; the College of Arts of the University of Wisconsin; the Iowa State Agricultural College, (and College of the Mechanic Arts,) in Story County; the College of Agriculture and the Mechanic Arts of Kansas; and the State Agricultural and Mechanical College of the University of Kentucky, at Lexington-all these institu

tions have an actual existence, some of them with histories of a dozen successful years, and may be treated as the beginnings of so many polytechnic schools, while the State Agricultural, Mining, and Mechanical Arts College of California is about organizing, and twenty more similar schools are destined to be established at an early day in all the remaining States.

CHAPTER X.

SCHOOLS OF MEDICINE, LAW, AND THEOLOGY.

I. SCHOOLS OF MEDICINE-THE EARLIEST SCHOOLS-ITALIAN SCHOOLS-FRENCH MEDICAL SCHOOLS- -SCHOOLS IN AUSTRIA AND PRUSSIA-MEDICAL EDUCATION IN GREAT BRITAIN-BRAZIL-MEDICAL EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES-II. SCHOOLS OF LAW—THE EARLIEST SCHOOLS-SCHOOLS OF THE LATIN NATIONS—ITALY—FRENCH, SPANISH, AND PORTUGUESE SCHOOLS-BRAZILIAN SCHOOLS-SCHOOLS OF THE GERMANIC NATIONS-SCANDINAVIAN SCHOOLS-RUSSIAN, ANGLO-SAXON, BRITISH, AND AMERICAN SCHOOLS-III. SCHOOLS OF THEOLOGY-THE FIRST CHRISTIAN SCHOOLSTABULAR VIEW OF SCHOOLS OF THEOLOGY IN EUROPE-SCHOOLS IN FRANCE, ITALY, GERMAN STATES, AND OTHER PORTIONS OF EUROPE-SCHOOLS OF THEOLOGY CONSIDERED AS A CLASS-COMPARATIVE COURSES OF INSTRUCTION.

I. MEDICAL SCHOOLS.

Dealing, as it does, with the spiritual, no less than with the physical, laws and relations of man, it is not surprising either that medicine should have been one of the first and most honored of the professions, or that its development should have waited during those successive periods of centuries whose beginnings were marked by the shining names of medical history, as also by the founding of the great schools of Alexandria, of the Roman empire, and of modern Europe, for those signal discoveries of chemistry and microscopy which have at length furnished the foundations of a true medical science.

Untold centuries of dogmatism, then full two thousand years of empiricism, then at last the dawn of science-this has been the order of development. What a shortening of this long period there might have been had the Alexandrian school not been blotted out so soon after entering the pathway of systematic investigation, we can only conjecture; though it seems highly probably that the careful dissections of the human body there instituted, had they continued until they became common at the other great centers of science and philosophy, would have saved the world from at least a thousand years of slavery to the anatomical and physiological crudities of Hippocrates, Galen, and Avicenna-an assumption warranted not more by the known learning and spirit of investigation that reigned in those days at Alexandria than by the unmistakable evidences we find in Celsus's great work, De Medicina, of the actual benefits derived by the ancient world from the discoveries made by the Alexandrian anatomists, notwithstanding the destruction, by Saracenic vandals, of all their written works.

But immediately following this period came the closing twilight, evening, and midnight of the Middle Ages, during which, except among the Arabians, who gave it refuge and fostering care, the only home of medical science was at Salernum, whose school, though great from the