Each of these parts should be followed by a period. A practice has lately become fashionable to omit periods altogether from title-pages, but it is wholly without literary authority.

4. Numbers of Paragraphs.—A period should follow each figure or letter indicating the number of the paragraph, the sentence, or the particular heading. Thus,

Some of the chief marks of punctuation are

1. The Period,

2. The Comma,

3. The Semicolon.

THE COMMA.

The Comma is used to mark the least degree of separation in the divisions of a sentence. The words comma, semicolon, and colon were originally used to denote the portion of the sentence cut off rather than the mark. The following are the chief rules for the use of the Comma:

1. Compound Sentences.-A comma is used to separate the members of a compound sentence when the degree of separation is slight. Thus,

"There was an abundance of game, but we had no gun."

2. Relative Clauses.-Relative clauses which are explanatory or which present an additional thought are set off by commas, but when such a clause is restrictive it is not separated from the chief clause by a comma.

A restrictive clause is one that limits its antecedent to some particular meaning, while a non-restrictive clause is equivalent to an additional thought. Thus, in the sentence, "The man who is industrious will succeed," the clause "who is industrious" is restrictive, the sentence being equivalent to "The industrious man will suc

ceed." In the sentence, "Mr. Sharp, who is an industrious man, will succeed," the clause in italics simply adds an additional thought with regard to Mr. Sharp, and it is therefore non-restrictive. It may be dropped from the sentence without destroying the sense of the principal clause; thus, "Mr. Sharp will succeed."

In the sentence, "The man who is industrious will succeed," the restrictive clause limits the meaning not only to "man," but to a particular man, "The man who is industrious,"

If several words intervene between a relative pronoun and its grammatical antecedent, a comma should be placed before the relative clause. Thus,

Quiy

"He will be most likely to win success, who is most faithful." to pare If a relative pronoun is followed by a word or a phrase enclosed by commas, a comma should be placed before the relative clause even when this clause is restrictive.

Thus,

"They, who, notwithstanding the fact that they were strangers, defended us, merited our gratitude."

When the relative has for its antecedent several nouns or clauses in succession, it should be separated from the last by a comma, even though the relative be restrictive. Thus,

"There were present laborers, merchants, and professional men, who doubted the arguments of the speaker."

If the comma were omitted after the word "men,” the sentence could be construed to mean that only the professional men doubted.

3. Dependent Clauses.-Dependent clauses are usually set off by commas, especially when they precede independent clauses. Thus,

"If you wish to win, you must struggle."

A dependent clause is one that modifies or completes the meaning of another clause. It is usually introduced by some coördinate conjunction or a conjunctive adverb, and it often precedes the clause on which it depends.

When the dependent clause follows that on which it depends, in many cases it is not set off by a comma; as, "We will remain if you do not object."

When the dependent clause follows that on which it depends, and is introduced by "that," it is not set off by a comma unless "that" is equivalent to "in order that," and is placed at some distance from the verb. Thus,

a. "I believe that it will rain."

b. "I shall listen to his arguments, that I may come to a conclusion for myself."

4. Parenthetical Expressions.- Parenthetical words and phrases should be set off by commas.

Expressions are parenthetical when they are placed between the related parts of a sentence, but are not strictly essential to its meaning.

The following are among the expressions commonly used parenthetically:

at the beginning or at the end of a sentence, only a single comma is used to separate the expression from the main part of the sentence.

When any of these same expressions are used to modify some particular part of the sentence, they lose their parenthetical character, and are no longer set off by commas. Observe the use of the word however in the following:

a. "You will, however, be late.”

b. "However, you will be late."

c. "He will do the work however late he may be."

Some words, known variously as expletives, independent adverbs, etc., as now, why, well, yes, no, again, first, secondly, further, etc., when they stand at the beginning of a sentence, are set off by commas. Thus,

“First, let me make a statement.”

"Well, we are ready to go."

"Why, that I cannot answer."

When now and then or here and there are used to introduce contrasted expressions, they are set off by commas. Thus,

'Now, all is peace; then, all was disorder."

5. Intermediate Expressions.-Clauses and other expressions not of a parenthetical character, but so placed as to come between the essential parts of a sentence, are set off by commas. Thus,

"Man, even in his lowest estate, is a noble work."

In general, commas may set off any of these intermediate expressions when they can be removed without destroying the sense of the sentence. Thus, in the sentence, "Physical exercise, especially in the open air, is of great importance to health," the expression "espe

cially in the open air" may be removed, and the remainder, "Physical exercise is of great importance to health," still conveys the chief thought without any modification.

6. Transposed Elements. Transposed phrases and clauses are usually set off by commas. Thus,

"Of the many odd people I have encountered, he was the oddest."

A comma is placed after a surname when it precedes the Christian name; as, Lindsey, George W.; Barker, R. S.

This arrangement of names is frequently made in alphabetical order in lists and indexes for convenience of reference.

When in transposed elements the connection is very close, the comma may be omitted; as, At noon we started on our journey."

7. Series. In a series of more than two words, all being the same part of speech, a comma should follow each word of the series.

Thus,

"The air, the earth, the water, teem with life."

When the conjunction is omitted between the last two words of a series, a comma is placed after the last unless it is followed by a single word; as, "Teacher, pupils, friends, have gone."

When the conjunction is omitted between all except the last two words of the series, a comma is usually put before the conjunction, but some writers omit it. The following is the usual form: "Days, months, and years have fled."

When the words in a series are connected by con