the best usage is in favor of beginning the word with a capital letter. Thus, Mandeville says, "For the Bar or the Pulpit." It would be better to write, "The calling of the Teacher is honorable," rather than "The calling of the teacher is honorable." So also, "The prosperity of the Merchant depends much upon his honesty and integrity," meaning merchants as a class, is a better form than "The prosperity of the merchant," etc., which might refer to an individual merchant.

Personification. According to Rule 17, common nouns, when strongly personified, should begin with. capital letters; thus, "The entrance to the garden of Hope was by two gates, one of which was kept by Reason, and the other by Fancy." But not every noun that is personified should be so written. Only those which are used in the sense of proper names should begin with capital letters. In the sentence from Milton, "Wave your tops, ye pines," the word pines, though addressed, does not represent persons, and it is not therefore written with a capital letter.

Words Derived from Proper Names.-Words derived from proper names usually begin with capital letters; as, American, Welsh, French, Latinize, Wesleyan, English, etc.

The two words "italics" and "italicize" are, however, frequently written without the use of capital letters.

Whenever a word derived from a proper name has lost its reference to the original name, and has taken its place as a common noun or a common adjective, it no longer is written with a capital letter. Thus, damask no longer has reference to Damascus, the word from which it was derived. So also colossal no longer has reference to Colossus, nor stentorian to Stentor, nor godlike to God, nor artesian to Artois, nor peach to Persia, nor muslin to Mo

sul; hence none of these words nor any of their kind are written with capital letters. The same principle applies to the writing of such words as china-ware, champagne, daguerreotype, galvanize, laconic, academic, and others.

Titles of Books, etc.-Sometimes it is difficult to determine the exact meaning of an oral expression that may be made perfectly clear when written, by the use or the non-use of a capital letter. Thus, in spoken language we detect no difference between "Webster's Speeches" and "Webster's speeches." When the expressions are written or printed we recognize that "Webster's Speeches" is the title of a book, while "Webster's speeches means the speeches of Webster. So also, "Longfellow's Poems" and "the poems of Longfellow" have a different meaning, determined by the use or the non-use of a capital letter.

The same principle applies when the adjective new precedes a noun. Thus, "The new Ironsides" refers to a new steamer named Ironsides, but in the expression "The New Ironsides," the name of the steamer is “The New Ironsides." The new Ironsides is a new boat; the New Ironsides may be either new or old.

So we write also of the principal of a school when we refer to his duties, but when we refer to his title we write of him as the Principal of the school. Princeton University was formerly the "College of New Jersey," and while that was its proper title it should have been spoken of as "The College of New Jersey." If the name Princeton were necessarily used, then it should. have been written not "Princeton College," but "The Princeton college;" that is, the college at Princeton. Notice the difference in the two expressions, "William Penn with a few other Friends" and "William Penn

with a few of his friends." Notice also the difference between "The Planter's House," a hotel, and "The planter's house," the residence of a planter.

The Lock Haven normal school is a normal school at Lock Haven, but the proper title is "The Central State Normal School of Pennsylvania." So also the Newark academy is an academy at Newark whose corporate title is "The Academy of Newark."

Names of Places. In many cases words originally beginning with small letters are now written with capitals because they have become names of places. Thus, Clark's ferry has been changed to Clark's Ferry, Pike's peak to Pike's Peak, Chadd's ford to Chadds Ford, Dobb's ferry to Dobbs Ferry.

Names of Cities.-In cases where the word city is used with a proper name, "city" should begin with a capital letter only when it forms part of the name. Thus, we write Jersey City, Atlantic City, Oil City, Mahanoy City, Salt Lake City, because the word city in each case is a part of the corporate name; but the word city in such expressions as New York city, Philadelphia city, Baltimore city, Washington city, is not written with a capital letter, because in none of these does it form a part of the corporate name. We may speak of Baltimore, New York, Boston, etc., but not of Jersey, Atlantic, Oil, or Salt Lake as cities.

Added Names.-When a new proper name is formed from an old one by the addition of a word, the latter becomes a part of the complete name and should begin with a capital letter. Thus, Philadelphia, West Philadelphia; Chicago, South Chicago, Chicago Junction; Baltimore, South Baltimore, North Baltimore; Chester, West Chester, South Chester; Canada, Upper Canada; Virginia, West Virginia.

Words and Phrases.-The rule requiring a capital letter at the beginning of a sentence applies also to words or phrases comprising an entire saying of some other person when introduced as having been said by him. Thus, "He shouted, 'Help, help!" "Every tongue shall exclaim with heart-felt joy, 'Welcome! welcome! La Fayette."

De, du, von, etc.-In general, the best usage favors beginning these words with capital letters, especially where they begin a heading or a sentence. Thus, the correct forms are Van Buren, Van Dyck, Du Pont, O'Reilly. Bulwer writes uncertainly "Captain de Caxton;" "the old De Caxtons," seeming to indicate that the absence of a capital is correct when a name or a title precedes the de; but Hood writes "Wolfgang von Dilke;" even Von Raumer."

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One Capital Letter.-Goold Brown, in his "Grammar of Grammars," gives as one of his rules on capital letters, "Compound proper names which by analogy incline to a union of their parts without a hyphen, should be so written, and have but one capital;" as, Eastport, Eastville, Westfield, Westtown, Whitehaven, Germantown, Blackrock, Mountpleasant, Dekalb, Newfoundland, etc. He adds on another page, "I would observe that perhaps there is nothing more puzzling in grammar than to find out, amidst all the diversity of random writing and wild guess-work in printing, the true way in which the compound names of places should be written."

In writing the names of places containing the word Haven, usage is not uniform, but the better plan is to begin both words with capital letters. Thus, Lock Haven, New Haven, White Haven. The same is true in words of which "Mount" forms a part. The proper

forms are Mount Holyoke, Mount Auburn, Mount Pleasant, Rocky Mount. So also the forms De Kalb and Des Moines are preferable to Dekalb and Desmoines.

Two Capital Letters.-Brown gives the following as one of the rules for the use of capital letters: "The compounding of a name under one capital should be avoided when the general analogy of other similar terms suggests a separation under two." He then gives the following as examples: "Ben Chat, Ben Golich, Ben Nore," etc. Following this rule he decides that the words East, West, North, South, denoting relative position, and the word New when it distinguishes a place by contrast, require generally a separation of the words and a capital letter for each; thus, East Greenwich, West Greenwich, North Manchester, South Manchester, New York, New Haven.

There are, however, many exceptions to this rule, as in the names Easthampton, Northhampton, Westchester, Southport.

It may be said that in names like Westchester and Newcastle usage varies. Any of these forms, New-Castle, New Castle, Newcastle, has authority for its usage. Whether the words are connected by a hyphen or written separately, each part should begin with a capital letter, but only one capital is used when the words are joined without a hyphen.

The conditions under which two capital letters are needed are as follows:

1. When an adjective is added to a proper name, as in New York, New England, North Carolina, South Dakota, Great Pedee, West Cleveland, Lower Canada.

2. When a proper noun with a possessive termination. is used with a common noun following it; as, Glenn's Falls, Baffin's Bay, Martha's Vineyard, Booth's Corner.