it to the next session.1 In that winter the subject was again discussed in town meetings and in the papers, and President Dwight, in his Thanksgiving sermon at Greenfield Hill, where he was then pastor, spoke in favor of it.2

In May, 1795, an act was finally passed-94 yeas to 52 nays--that the Proceeds of this sale are to be made into a perpetual fund, from which shall be, and hereby is, appropriated to the support of schools in the several societies constituted by law, according to the list of polls and ratable estates.

Ecclesiastical societies were forbidden to have power over schooling, and the act of October, 1793, was finally repealed. A committee of eight was to conduct the sale, and the lands were not to be sold off for less than $1,000,000. The sale was effected to a company of Connecticut men for $1,200,000, payable in five years, and the committee reported the sale to the legislature in October, 1795.3 Up to 1800 the original committee managed the fund. Then Messrs. John Treadwell, Thomas Y. Seymour, Shubael Abbe, and the state treasurer,1 were appointed "managers of the funds arising in the sales of the Western Reserve." They took care of it till 1809, and in the first thirteen years the total interest was $456,757.44, an average of $35,135.18 per annum. The first apportionment of the school fund came in 1799, and consisted of the interest which had accumulated from September 2, 1797, and equaled $60,403.78. In March, 1800, the dividend was $23,651.

The report of the managers in October, 1809, showed much unpaid interest and some collateral securities unsafe. This made it seem advisable that the management of the fund should be given to one man, who should devote his whole time to it. A committee, of which Hon. David Daggett was chairman, recommended this, and it was adopted. Accordingly at the May session of the legislature, in 1810, Hon. James Hillhouse, then United States Senator, was appointed first commissioner of the school fund.5 He resigned his seat in the Senate and took the office. He found matters in a bad condition; the capital was largely in debt from the original purchasers and substituted securities, which had been complicated by insolvency, death, etc.; the interest was often in arrears, and the debtors were scattered. Without a single lawsuit or spending one dollar for counsel, "he reduced the disordered management to an efficient system; disentangled its affairs from Icose and embarrassed connections with personal securities and indebted estates; rendered it productive of a large, regular, and increasing dividend, and converted its doubtful claims into well secured and solid capital." During his fifteen years of service the dividends averaged $52,061.35, and the capital was increased to $1,719,434.24. When a constitution was adopted for the State, in 1818, the only provisions in regard to education were one confirming the charter of Yale College, and one providing that

1 1 Barnard, p. 96.

6

2 Barnard, p. 97.

4 Barnard, p. 146.

6 Constitution, Art. 8, Sec. 2.

The fund called the School Fund shall remain a perpetual fund, the interest of which shall be inviolably appropriated to the support and encouragement of the public, or common schools throughout the State, and for the equal benefit of all the people thereof. The value and amount of said fund shall, as soon as practicable, be ascertained, in such manner as the General Assembly may prescribe, published, and recorded in the Comptroller's office, and no law shall ever be made, authorizing said fund to be diverted to any other use than the encouragement and support of public or common schools, among the several school societies, as justice and equity shall require.

In 1820, the legislature decided that the tax of $2 on each $1,000 should cease when the income from the school fund should exceed $62,000, which it did the next year.1

In 1822, owing to an impression that improvement in the schools had not kept pace with increase of the school fund, Governor Wolcott reminded the general assembly, in his message, of their duty to see if the system of public schools be well carried out.2

In 1823 the office of assistant commissioner was created, and Seth P. Beers, of Litchfield, appointed to it, with a salary of $1,000 and expenses.

In 1825, Mr. Hillhouse, who had received $1,500 a year while in office, resigned, and Mr. Beers succeeded him with a salary of $1,200. He held office for twenty-four years, till 1849.3 Under him the fund increased to $2,076,602.75, and the average income was $97,815.15, rising during his occupancy of the office from $72,418.30 to $133,356.50. The total amount disbursed during this time was $2,347,563.80. He was succeeded by Hon. Gordon Trumbull, who held office two years. After him came John C. Palmer, in 1851. His first report shows an income of $138,060.63, giving $1.40 per capita to the children of school age. In 1825 it had been but $0.85 per capita, and had gradually increased to $1.50, its highest figure, in 1850. The fund amounted to $2,049,482.32. Then, for some years, a policy was adopted of changing commissioners annually,5 till Hon. Albert Sedgwick was appointed in 1855; he held office twelve years, and under him the dividends reached their highest figure, $143,193.75, in 1857.

In 1867, Hon. George A. Payne became commissioner of school fund; in 1873, Alfred I. Munyan; in 1876, Henry C. Mill, and in 1881, Jeremiah Olney, the present efficient commissioner. When he took office he found the fund somewhat depleted by injudicious investments, but it has now been restored to its old amount, and in 1888, the date of the last report, amounted to $2,019,572.40, and yielded a dividend of $116,199. There were then in the State 154,932 children of school age, so that the dividend amounted to $0.75 per capita.

'North American Review, April, 1823.

2 Barnard, p. 148.

3 James Hillhouse (L. Bacon); American Journal of Education, vi, 325-367; History of School Fund; American Journal of Education, vı, 367–426.

4 Printed reports were first regularly published in 1826. Report for 1851. 51852, Abijah Catlin; 1853, Loren P. Waldo; 1854, Mason Cleveland.

The Hon. Henry Barnard, in a recent letter to the author, claims for Connecticut "the origination of at least the earliest and largest endowment of the common schools." A policy leading in that direction is shown by the State School and Town Deposit Funds and by the many gifts from towns and private individuals to schools. The Connecticut influence in the Ordinance of 1787, setting apart a portion of all Government land for schools, is worthy of note in this connection.

PUBLIC SCHOOLS SINCE 1839.

At the May session of 1839, the "act to provide for the better supervision of common schools," was passed. The board constituted by it was to report yearly "a statement of the condition of every common school in the State and of the means of popular education generally,” and "such plans for the improvement and better organization of the common schools and all such matters relating to popular education as they may deem expedient to communicate." The board could not itself change the system; it was simply to report what it was and suggest improvements. Its secretary was to "devote his whole time, if required, under the direction of the board, to ascertain the condition, increase the interest, and promote the usefulness of common schools." Henry Barnard, the national educator, was chosen secretary, and the publication of the "Connecticut Common School Journal" was begun. In 1841, he prepared, at the request of the board, a revised school law, which passed the legislature, but a year later a reaction came and Governor Cleveland, in his message to the legislature, recommended the abolition of the school board, which recommendation was followed. Some thought too much had been spent, though Mr. Barnard had expended for education every cent he had received from the State. 1 It seemed as if the labor was wasted, but the repealed statutes were later restored, and the foundation had been laid.

In 1844, Governor Baldwin recommended the improvement of schools to the legislature, and a committee was appointed to examine the condition of schools and report, "together with such plans and suggestions for their improvement as may seem calculated substantially to promote the usefulness of schools and the interests of education generally in the United States." They suggested in their report the appointment of a superintendent of public schools, the establishment of a normal school, and the appointment of an acting school visitor from each local board. The first and last of these were adopted by the general assembly; the second was not. The Hon. Seth P. Beers, commissioner of the school fund, was made ex-officio school superintendent, and presented his first report in 1846. The system proved an improvement over the old headless arrangement, and the abolition of small districts was suggested. Mr. Bunce, of Hartford, offered a prize of $100 for an

1 American Journal of Education.

essay on the "necessity and means of improving the common schools of Connecticut." This was won by ex-President Noah Porter, of Yale College, and recommended the examination of teachers by one or more county officers, the holding of teachers' institutes, a normal school, more liberal pay for teachers, gradation of schools in cities and large towns, the establishment of high schools, and property taxation for schools. Mr. Bunce continued his agitation of the subject, and among the results were a convention of teachers at Hartford and the founding in January, 1847, of the "Connecticut School Journal," which was published for two years.

In 1849, the State Normal School was founded, and its principal was made ex-officio superintendent of common schools. Of course, Mr. Barnard was chosen to that office.2

3

In 1821, the legal obligation to raise a tax for the support of schools ceased on account of the increase of the dividend from the school fund, and the districts, which did not receive a sufficient grant for their schools from that source, assessed the surplus on the parents of scholars. Bad results naturally followed, and a great lack of interest in schools was shown, while a too minute subdivision into districts also dissipated interest and diminished the opportunity in schools of thorough instruction. In 1854, this unfortunate state of things was amended by the passage of an act imposing on each town the duty of raising 1 cent on each $1 of the grand list for support of schools. This was followed up by the abolition of school societies in 1856, and the transferrence of their functions to the towns. In 1851 the Connecticut Common School Journal, which Mr. Barnard had given up in 1842, was resumed by him and transferred to the State Teachers' Association in 1855.

In 1865, the State Board of Education was formed, consisting of the governor, the lieutenant governor, and four others, one from each Congressional district. The schools of the State are still governed by it.

In 1868, the town tax was increased to such an amount as to make schools free, and, in 1871, the State made an appropriation of 50 cents for each person of school age, in addition to the dividend from the school fund. The schools are thus governed by the State board of education; the board of school visitors for each town, either 3, 6, or 9 in number; and the district committee, unless its functions have been transferred by vote of the town to the school visitors. Of late, a wholesome tendency has appeared to consolidate school districts and place the management of schools in the hands of the town.

In addition to the public schools the State supports an industrial school for girls, a school for imbeciles at Lakeville, and provides for the

1 American Journal of Education, XIII, 726.

2 American Journal of Education, XIV, 244.

American Journal of Education, XV, 275.

4 This finally did away with the rate bill or payments by parents.

5 American Journal of Education, XXIV, 223ff.

deaf and dumb at the American Asylum, in Hartford, the oldest one in the country, founded by the Rev. T. H. Gallaudet in 1817, and at the Whipple Home School at Groton. The blind are provided for at the Perkins Institution and Massachusetts Asylum at Boston, Mass.

THE TOWN DEPOSIT FUND.

In 1837, the United States divided the surplus in the Treasury among the several States. Connecticut's share was $763,661.83, and, on receipt of it, the State resolved "that each town keep and preserve its share of the money as a deposit and in trust for the State, making good any loss and repaying the whole on demand." One-half of the income was to be used for education and one-half for the current expenses of the town. The fund "illustrates the fate of gratuities given to relieve communities of their bounden duties."

In 1859, a law was passed directing that all the income be used for education, and in 1887 the ostensible amount of the fund was $753,326.87. Of this amount about five-sevenths has been borrowed from the fund by the towns, or, in other words, they have misappropriated it to their own use. They have not put "themselves in the position of borrowers, but they have taken the fund, regarding it as belonging to them. It can not be found that the fund adds to the number of schools, or augments the appliances, or the libraries; it does not add to the wages of good teachers, or promote good teaching, it does not increase attendance, or decrease illiteracy, or arouse any general or public interest in the schools themselves."1

TEACHERS' INSTITUTES AND THE NORMAL SCHOOL.2

In January, 1825, in the Connecticut Observer, was made the first presentation of the claims of a normal school by the Rev. T. H. Gallaudet, of the American Asylum for Deaf and Dumb.3 Nothing, however, came of this, nor of the convention at Hartford of the friends of education in 1830.

In 1839 the first practical move was made. A State teachers' convention was held at Hartford; and in the autumn of that year the first teachers' institute was held at the same place, at the expense of the Hon. Henry Barnard. He tried to get an appropriation of $5,000 for this purpose, but was unsuccessful. However, he started a teachers' class in Hartford and persevered. In 1847 these teachers' institutes were authorized by law, and by the end of 1864, 150 of such institutes had been held. They are among the most stimulating and invigor

'Report of Board of Education, 1888, pp. 134–147.

2 Seth J. North and State Normal School; American Journal of Education, vi, 104-109.

3 American Journal of Education, XIV, 244.

4 American Journal of Education, xv, 593; “Educational Commission and Association in Connecticut."