to him are found in the libraries of Munich, Venice, Florence, Madrid, Paris, London and elsewhere. The character of his work is sufficiently indicated by his epithet Simeon the Paraphraser, given to him because he turned "the ancient lives of the saints into another sort of a style than that wherein they were formerly written." He used old material in most cases, and sometimes he did no more than edit it, at other times he re-wrote it, with a view to make it more accurate or attractive. Some of the lives are, however, original compositions. His work is of very unequal value, and as his credulity led him to admit very doubtful matter, it must be used with caution. However, he deserves thanks for his diligence in rescuing from obscurity many now illustrious names.

Besides the Lives, nine Epistles, several sermons, orations, hymns, and a canonical epitome bear his name." The Simeonis Chronicon is probably the work of a Simeon of the twelfth century.

§ 147. Ecumenius.

I. ECUMENIUS: Opera omnia, in Migne, Patrol. Gr. Tom. CXVIII., CXIX., col. 726, reprint of ed. of Hentenius. Paris, 1630-31, 2 vols. fol. CEILLIER, XII. 913, 914.

ECUMENIUS was bishop of Tricca, in Thessaly, toward the close of the 10th century, and wrote a commentary upon the Acts, the Epistles of Paul and the Catholic Epistles, which is only a catena, drawn from twenty-three Fathers and writers of the Greek Church,3 with an occasional original comment. The work displays taste and judgment.

§ 148. Theophylact.

I. THEOPHYLACT: Opera omnia, in Migne, Patrol. Gr. Tom. CXXIII.CXXVI., reprint of ed. of DE RUBEIS. Venice, 1754-63, 4 vols. fol. DU PIN, IX. 108, 109; NEANDER, III. 584-586; CEILLIER, XIII. 554-558.

1 Du Pin, in loco.

2

Migne, CXIV. col. 209-292.

Their names are given in Migne, CXVIII. col. 9.

THEOPHYLACT, the most learned exegete of the Greek Church in his day, was probably born at Euripus,' on the Island of Euboea, in the Egean Sea. Very little is known about him. He lived under the Greek Emperors Romanus IV. Diogenes (1067-1071), Michael VII. Ducas Parapinaces (1071–1078), Nicephorus III. Botoniates (1078-1081), Alexius I. Comnenus (1081-1118). The early part of his life he spent in Constantinople; and on account of his learning and virtues was chosen tutor to Prince Constantine Porphyrogenitus, the son of Michael Ducas. From 1078 until after 1107 he was archbishop of Achrida and metropolitan of Bulgaria. He ruled his diocese in an independent manner, but his letters show the difficulties he had to contend with. It is not known when he died.

His fame rests upon his commentary on the Gospels, Acts, Pauline, and Catholic Epistles; and on Hosea, Jonah, Nahum and Habakkuk, which has recently received the special commendation of such exegetes as De Wette and Meyer. It is drawn from the older writers, especially from Chrysostom, but Theophylact shows true exegetical insight, explaining the text clearly and making many original remarks of great value.

Besides his commentary, his works embrace orations on the Adoration of the Cross, the Presentation of the Virgin, and on the Emperor Alexius Comnenus; a treatise on the Education of Princes; a History of Fifteen Martyrdoms; and an Address on the Errors of the Latin Church. Two of these call for further mention. The Education of Princes is addressed to Constantine Porphyrogenitus. It is in two books, of which the first is historical and discourses upon the parents of the prince, the second discusses his duties and trials. It was formerly a very popular work. It is instructive to compare it with the

1 This is the name likewise of the narrowest part of the Euboic Sea. 'Migne, CXXIII.-CXXVI. col. 104.

3 Migne, CXXVI. col. 105–129.

5 Ibid. col. 288-305.

Ibid. col. 152-221.

Ibid. col. 129–144. • Ibid. col. 253-285. 8 Ibid. col. 221-249.

similar works by Paulinus, Alcuin, and Smaragdus.' The Address is the most interesting work of Theophylact. It is written in a singularly conservative and moderate strain, although it discusses the two great matters in dispute between the Greek and Latin Churches, the procession of the Holy Spirit, and the bread of the Eucharist. Of these matters Theophylact considered the first only important, and upon it took unhesitatingly the full Greek position of hostility to the Latins. Yet his fairness comes out in the remark that the error of the Latins may be due to the poverty of their language which compelled them to "employ the same term to denote the causality of the communication of the Holy Spirit and the causality of his being. The Latins, he observed, moreover, might retain the less accurate forms of expression in their homiletic discourses, if they only guarded against misconception, by carefully explaining their meaning. It was only in the confession of faith in the symbol, that perfect clearness was requisite." In regard to the bread of the Eucharist the Latins held that it should be unleavened, the Greeks that it should be leavened. Each church claimed to follow the usage of Christ. Theophylact admitted that Christ used unleavened bread, but maintained that His example in this respect is not binding, for if it were in this then it would be in everything connected with the Supper, and it would be necessary to use barley bread and the wine of Palestine, to recline at table and to hold the Supper in a hall or upper room. But there is such a thing as Christian liberty, and the kind of bread to be used is one of the things which this liberty allows. Upon both these points of fierce and long controversy he counseled continual remembrance of the common Christian faith and the common Christian fellowship.

1 Viz. Exhortations, On Virtues and Vices, and Way of the King, spoken of farther on.

2 Neander, l. c. p. 586.

§ 149. Michael Psellus.

I. MICHAEL PSELLUS: Opera, in Migne, Patrol. Gr., Tom. CXXII., col. 477-1358. His Hist. Byzant, et alia opuscula, ed. by Constantin Sathas. Paris, 1874.

II. LEO ALLATIUS: Diatriba de Psellis, in Migne, l. c., col. 477–536. CEILLIER, XIII. 335–337.

MICHAEL PSELLUS, the third of the five of that name mentioned by Allatius, was born of a consular and patrician family in Constantinople about 1020. He took naturally to study, and denied himself the amusements and recreations of youth in order that he might make all the more rapid progress. Having completed his studies at Athens, he returned to Constantinople, and was appointed chief professor of philosophy. Constantine Monomachus invited him to his court, and entrusted him with secular business. He then turned his attention from philosophy and rhetoric to theology, physics, medicine, mathematics, astronomy and military science. In short, he explored the entire domain of knowledge, and as his memory was tenacious, he was able to retain everything he studied. "It has been said that in him human nature yielded up its inmost powers in order that he might ward off the downfall of Greek learning." He was made the tutor of Michael Ducas, the future emperor, who when he came to the throne retained him in his councils. Psellus, of course, took the Greek position upon the Filioque question, and thwarted the movement of Peter, bishop of Anagni, to establish peace between the Greek and Latin churches. When Michael Ducas was deposed (1078), he was deprived of his professorship, and so he retired to a monastery, where he died. The last mention of him is made in 1105.

Psellus was a prolific author, but many of his writings are unprinted, and many are lost. Of the theological works which have been printed the most important are:

1 Gass in Herzog,2 s. v. xii. 340.

* See lists in Allatius, Diatriba, in Migne, CXXII. col. 498–532.

(1) Exposition of the Song of Songs,' a paraphrase in verse with a commentary and excerpts from Gregory of Nyssa, Nilus, and Maximus.

(2) A Learned Miscellany, in 157 paragraphs, in which nearly everything is treated of, from the relations of the persons of the Trinity to the rise of the Nile and the changes of the weather. It is one of those prodigies of learning which really indicate the comparative ignorance of the past, and are now mere curiosities.

(3) The Operations of Demons, an attack, in the form of a dialogue, upon the Euchites, whom he charges with revolting and disgusting crimes, under the prompting of demons. But he passes on to discuss the subject more broadly and resting on the testimony of a certain monk who had actually seen demons he teaches their perpetual activity in human affairs; that they can propagate their species; and go anywhere at will under either a male or female form. From them come diseases and innumerable woes. The book is very curious, and has permanent value as a contribution to the demonology of the Middle Ages.

Twelve letters of Psellus have been printed. His panegyric upon Simeon Metaphrastes has already been mentioned. He wrote a criticism of the eloquence of Gregory the Theologian, Basil, and Chrysostom, and celebrated these Fathers also in verse.7

6

Besides certain legal and philosophical treatises he wrote a poem on Doctrine, and a metrical Synopsis of Law.'

1 Ερμηνεία κατά παράφρασιν τοῦ ᾄσματος τῶν ᾀσμάτων. Ibid. col. 537-685.

2

( 1 Διδασκαλία παντοδαπή. Ibid. col. 688-784.

3 Περὶ ἐνεργείας δαιμόνων. Ibid. col. 820-876.

4 'EmiσToλai. Ibid. col. 1161–1185. Xapakтhpes. Migne, CXXII. col. 901-908. Ibid. col. 908-910.

8 Περὶ δόγματος. Ibid. col. 812-817.

• Σύνοψις τῶν νόμων. Ibid. col. 925-974.

5 See p. 642.