FULBERT, called by his admiring disciples "the Socrates of the Franks," was born of poor and obscure parents, probably at Chartres, about 950, and educated in the cathedral school of Rheims by Gerbert. He founded a similar school at Chartres, which soon acquired a brilliant reputation and rivalled that of Rheims. About 1003 he was elected chancellor of the church of Chartres, and in 1007 its bishop. When the cathedral burned down (1020), he received contributions from all parts of France and other countries for its reconstruction, but did not live to finish it. He was involved in the political and ecclesiastical disturbances of his country, opposed the use of the sword by the bishops, and the appropriation of church property and sale of offices by the avaricious laity. He lost the favor of the court by his opposition to the intrigues of Queen Constantia. died April 10, 1029.1

2

He

Fulbert's fame rests chiefly on his success as a living teacher. This is indicated by his surname. He was not an original thinker, but knew how to inspire his pupils with enthusiasm.3 His personality was greater than his learning.

He wisely cominstruction, and

bined spiritual edification with intellectual aimed at the eternal welfare of his students. He used to walk with them at eventide in the garden and to engage in familiar conversations on the celestial country; sometimes he was over

1 An epitaph (in Migne, l. c. 165) describes Fulbert as 'suæ tempestatis [sui temporis] pontificum decus, lux præclara mundo a Deo data, pauperum sustentator, desolatorum consolator, prædonum et latronum refrenator, vir eloquentissimus, et sapientissimus tam in divinis quam in liberalium artium libris." There is also an epitaph in poetry, l. c. col. 171.

2 "Venerabilis ille Socrates" he is called by Adelmann.

3 Reuter (I. 89) characterizes him very well: “Ein ungewöhnliches pädagogisches Talent ist sicher demjenigen eigen gewesen, welchen die bewundernden Schüler den Socrates der Franken nannten. Die Persönlichkeit war ungleich grösser als die wissenschaftliche Leistung, das individuell Anfassende bedeutsamer als die materielle Unterweisung. Nicht fähig originelle Gedanken zu entwickeln und mitzutheilen, hat Fulbert als Bildner der Eigenthümlichkeit begabter Schüler seine Virtuosität in der anregenden Kraft seines Umgangs gezeigt. Dieser Lehrer wurde der Vater gar verschieden gestimmter wissenschaftlicher Söhne."

come by his feelings, and adjured them with tears, never to depart from the path of truth and to strive with all might after that heavenly home.1

His ablest pupil was Berengar of Tours, the vigorous opponent of transubstantiation, and it has sometimes been conjectured that he derived his views from him. But Fulbert adhered to the traditional orthodoxy, and expressed himself against innovations, in letters to his metropolitan, Leutherich, archbishop of Sens. He regarded the real presence as an object of faith and adoration rather than of curious speculation, but thought that it is not more difficult to believe in a transformation of substance by Divine power than in the creation of substance.3 He was a zealous worshipper of the saints, especially of the Virgin Mary, and one of the first who celebrated the festival of her Nativity. The works of Fulbert consist of one hundred and thirty-nine (or 138) Letters, including some letters of his correspondents;" nine Sermons; twenty-seven Hymns and Poems, and a few

1 Adelmann, one of his pupils, in a letter to Berengar, his fellow-student, reminded him of these memorable conversations, and warned him against error. See p. 554, and Neander, III. 502.

2 By Bishop Cosin (in his Hist. Transsubstantiationis), as quoted by Robertson, II. 607.

Ep. V. (Migne, col. 201): "Jam nunc ad illud Dominici corporis et sanguinis transeamus venerabile sacramentum, quod quidem tantum formidabile est ad loquendum: quantum non terrenum, sed cœleste est mysterium; non humanæ æstimationi comparabile, sed admirabile; non disputandum, sed metuendum. De quo silere potius æstimaveram quam temeraria disputatione indigne aliquid definire; quia cœlestis altitudo mysterii plane non valet officio linguæ corruptibilis exponi. Est enim mysterium fide non specie æstimandum, non visu corporeo, sed spiritu intuendum." Then towards the close of the same letter (col. 204) he says: "Si Deum omnia posse credis, et hoc consequitur ut credas; nec humanis disputationibus discernere curiosus insistes, si creaturas quas de nihilo potuit creare, has ipsas multo magis valeat in excellentioris naturæ dignitatem convertere, et in sui corporis substantiam transfundere." The last phrase is nearly equivalent to transubstantiation.

4 Epistola, Migne, l. c. col. 189-278. Giesebrecht, Damberger, and Werner have analyzed and made much use of them.

5 Sermones ad populum. Ibid. col. 317-340.

Hymni et carmina ecclesiastica. Ibid. col. 339-352. See above, 96, p. 433.

minor compositions, including probably a life of St. Autbert.1 His letters have considerable interest and importance for the history of his age. The longest and most important letter treats of three doctrines which he regarded as essential and fundamental, namely, the trinity, baptism, and the eucharist.2

From the school of Gerbert at Rheims proceeded the school of Fulbert at Chartres, and from this again the school of Berengar at Tours-all equally distinguished for popularity and efficiency. They in turn were succeeded by the monastic school of Lanfranc at Bec, who came from Italy, labored in France, opposed Berengar, his rival, and completed his career in England as archbishop of Canterbury. He was excelled by his pupil and successor, Anselm, the second Augustin, the father of Catholic scholasticism. With him began a new and important chapter in the development of theology.

§ 181. Rodulfus Glaber. Adam of Bremen.

I. RODULFUS GLABER (Cluniacensis monachus): Opera, in Migne, Tom. CXLII. col. 611-720. The Historia sui temporis or Historia Francorum is also printed in part, with textual emendations by G. Waitz, in the Monum. Germ. Script., ed. by Pertz, Tom. VII. 48-72, and the Vita Willelmi abbatis in Tom. IV. 655-658. Comp. CEILLIER: XIII. 143–147. WATTENBACH: Deutschlands Geschichtsquellen. POTTHAST: Biblioth. hist. medii ævi, p. 521.

II. ADAMUS BREMENSIS: Gesta Hammaburgensis ecclesiæ Pontificum, seu Historia ecclesiastica. Libri IV. Best. ed. by Lappenberg in Pertz, Mon. Germ. Scriptores, Tom. VII. 267-389. German translation by Laurent, with introduction by Lappenberg, Berlin, 1850 (in "Geschichtschreiber der deutschen Vorzeit;" XI. Jahrh. B. VII.). In Migne, Tom. CXLVI. col. 433-566 (reprinted from Pertz).-Comp. GIESEBRECHT: Wendische Geschichte, III. 316 sqq.; WatteNBACH: Deutschlands Geschichtsquellen (first ed. p. 252 sqq.); KOPPMANN: Die mittelalterlichen Geschichtsquellen in Bezug auf Hamburg (1868);

1 Vita S. Autberti, Cameracensis episcopi. Ibid. col. 355-368.

2 Ep. V. (formerly Ep. 1, in Migne, col. 196 sqq.). De tribus quæ sunt necessaria ad profectum Christianæ religionis, from the year 1007, addressed to his metropolitan superior. See the extract on the eucharist above, p. 784, note 3.

POTTHAST, l. c. p. 100; C. BERTHEAU in Herzog2 I. 140 sqq. Of older notices see CEILLIER, XIV. 201-206.

Among the historical writers of the eleventh century, RoDULFUS GLABER, and ADAM OF BREMEN deserve special mention, the one for France, the other for the North of Europe.

RODULFUS GLABER' was a native of Burgundy, sent to a convent in early youth by his uncle, and expelled for bad conduct; but he reformed and joined the strict Benedictine school of Cluny. He lived a while in the monastery of St. Benignus, at Dijon, then at Cluny, and died about 1050.

His chief work is a history of his own time, from 1000–1045, in five books. Though written in barbarous Latin and full of inaccuracies, chronological blunders, and legendary miracles, it is an interesting and indispensable source of information, and gives vivid pictures of the corrupt morals of that period. He wrote also a biography of St. William, abbot of Dijon, who

died 1031.3

ADAM OF BREMEN, a Saxon by birth, educated (probably) at Magdeburg, teacher and canon of the chapter at Bremen (1068), composed, between 1072 and 1076, a history of the Bishops of Hamburg-Bremen. This is the chief source for the oldest church history of North Germany and Scandinavia, from 788 to the death of Adalbert, who was archbishop of Bremen from 1045-1072. Adam drew from the written sources in the rich

1i. e. Calvus, Kahlkopf, Baldhead. His proper name was Rodulfus or Radulphus. Ceillier (l. c. p. 143): “Rodulphe ou Raoul, surnommé Glaber parce qu'il était chauve et sans poil."

2 This is the judgment of Waitz (Mon. Germ. VII. 49), and Giesebrecht (II. 567). Wattenbach (Deutschlands Geschichtsquellen, first ed., 1858, p. 322) calls it "ein Werk voll merkwürdiger Dinge, und mannigfach belehrend, aber ohne festen Plan und chronologische Ordnung."

3 The Vita S. Guillelmi or Willelmi, in Migne, l. c. col. 701-720.

4 Hamburg was the original seat of the Northern episcopate, and remained so nominally, but owing to the constant irruptions of the Wends and Normans, it was transferred to Bremen.

library of the church at Bremen, and from oral traditions.' He went to the Danish King Sven Estrithson, who "preserved the whole history of the barbarians in his memory as in a book." He is impartial and reliable, but neglects the chronology. He may almost be called the Herodotus of the North except for his want of simplicity. He was familiar with Virgil, Horace, Lucian, and formed his style chiefly after Sallust; hence his artificial brevity and sententiousness. He ranks with the first historians of the middle ages.3

§ 182. St. Peter Damiani.

2

I. Beati PETRI DAMIANI (S. R. E. Cardinalis Episcopi Ostiensis Ordinis S. Benedicti) Opera omnia in quatuor tomos distributa, studio et labore Domni Constantini Cajetani (of Montecassino), first publ. Rom. 1606-'13; in Paris, 1663; in Venice, 1783. Reprinted with Vita and Prolegomena in Migne's "Patrol. Lat.," Tom. CXLIV. and CXLV. (1853). Tom. I. 1060 cols.; Tom. II. 1224 cols.

II. Three biographies of Damiani, one by his pupil, Joannes monachus, who, however, only describes his monastic character. See Migne, I. 47-204. Acta Sanctorum (Bolland.), for February 23, Tom. III. 406-427. Acta Sanctorum Ordinis S. Bened., Sæc. VI. Also the Annales Ordinis S. Benedicti, ed. Mabillon, Tom. IV., lib. LVIII.LXII. (which extend from A. D. 1039–1066, and notice the public acts of Damiani in chronological order).

III. JAC. LADERCHI: Vita S. Petri Damiani S. R. E. Cardinalis. Rom. 1702. 3 Tom. ALBR. VOGEL: Peter Damiani. Jena, 1856. Comp. his art. in Herzog III. 466 sqq. F. NEUKIRCH: Das Leben des Peter Dam. Göttingen, 1876. Jos. KLEINERMANNS (R. C.): Petrus Damiani in s. Leben und Wirken, nach den Quellen dargestellt. Steyl, 1882. Comp. also CEILLIER, XIII. 296–324. NEANDER, III. 382,

1 Lappenberg gives a full account of all his sources.

2 Wattenbach (p. 254): "Sein Vorbild ist besonders Sallust, der in den Schulen vorzugsweise gelesen wurde und darum auch einen übergrossen Einfluss auf den Stil der Zeit übte." He adds (p. 255): "Jede gewissenhafte Forschung geht auf Adam zurück, und seine Autorität stand von Anfang an mit Recht in hohem Ansehen."

3 Lappenberg (in Mon. Germ. VII. 267): "Paucissimi sane sunt inter medii ævi historicos, qui rerum traditarum gravitate, perspicuitate, iudicii ingenuitate, fontium scriptorum cognitione, sermonum ore traditorum accurata perceptione ita emineant, ut Adamus, magister scolarum Bremensis."