thium

Perus tual, though exceeding cruel method. Most of the cities in the kingdom had no other water than what was Peran brought from a considerable distance in aqueducts. These Aquilius did not demolish, but poisoned the water, which produced the greatest abhorrence of him throughout all the east. At last, however, the whole country being reduced, Aquilius triumphed, the unhappy Aristonicus was led in chains before his chariot, and probably ended his miserable life in a dungeon. The country remained subject to the Romans while their empire lasted, but is now in the hands of the Turks. The city is half ruined, and is still known by the name of Pergamus. It is inhabited by about 3000 Turks, and a few families of poor Christians. E. Long. 27. 27. N. Lat. 30. 3.

PERGUNNAH, in the language of Hindostan, means the largest subdivision of a province, whereof the revenues are brought to one particular head Cutchery, from whence the accounts and cash are transmitted to the general Cutchery of the province.

PERIAGOGE, in Rhetoric, is used where many things are accumulated into one period which might have been divided into several.

PERIAGUA, a kind of large canoe made use of in the Leeward islands, South America, and the gulf of Mexico. It is composed of the trunks of two trees hollowed and united together; and thus differs from the canoe, which is formed of one tree.

PERIANDER, tyrant of Corinth and Corcyra, was reckoned among the seven wise men of Greece; though he might rather have been reckoned among the most wicked men, since he changed the government of his country, deprived his countrymen of their liberty, usurped the sovereignty, and committed the most shocking crimes. In the beginning of his reign he behaved with mildness; but after his having sent to the tyrant of Syracuse to consult him on the safest method of government, he abandoned himself to cruelty. The latter, having heard Periander's envoys, took them into a field, and, instead of answering them, pulled up before them the ears of corn which exceeded the rest in height. Periander, on being told of this action, understood what was meant by it. He first secured himself by a good guard, and then put the most powerful Corinthians to death. He abandoned himself to the most enormous crimes; committed incest with his mother, kicked to death his wife Melissa, daughter of Procles king of Epidaurus, notwithstanding her being with child; and was so enraged at Lycophron, his second son, for lamenting his mother's death, that he banished him into the island of Corcyra. Yet he passed for one of the greatest politicians of his time; and Heraclides tells us, that he forbade voluptuousness; that he imposed no taxes, contenting himself with the custom arising from the sale and the import and export of commodities; that, though wicked himself, he hated the wicked, and caused all pimps to be drowned; lastly, that he established a se-. nate, and settled the expence of its members. He died 585 B. C.

PERIANTHIUM, (from xg, " round," and arbos, "the flower," the flower cup properly so called, the most common species of calyx, placed immediately under the flower, which is contained in it as in a cup. Sce BOTANY Index.

VOL. XVI. Part I.

PERICARDIUM, in Anatomy, a membranous bag Pericardifilled with water, which contains the heart in man and um many other animals. It is formed by a duplicature " of the mediastinum, or membrane which divides the Perigraphe. thorax into two unequal parts. See ANATOMY, No

121.

PERICARPIUM, (from wig, “ round," and xagos, "fruit,") the seed-vessel; that organ of a plant containing the seeds, which it discharges when ripe. The seed. vessel is in fact the developed seed-bud, and may very properly be compared to the fecundated ovary in animals; for it does not exist till after the fertilizing of the seeds by the male dust, and the consequent fall of the flower. All plants, however, are not furnished with a seed-vessel; in such as are deprived of it, the receptacle or calyx performs its functions by inclosing the seeds as in a matrix, and accompanying them to perfect maturity.

PERICHORUS, in antiquity, a name given by the Greeks to their profane games or combats, that is, to such as were not consecrated to any of the gods.

PERICLES, was one of the greatest men that ever flourished in Greece. He was educated with all imaginable care; and beside other masters, he had for his tutors Zeno, Eleates, and Anaxagoras. He learned from the last of these to fear the gods without superstition, and to account for an eclipse from a natural cause. Many were unjust enough to suspect him of atheism, because he had perfectly studied the doctrine of that philosopher. He was a man of undoubted courage; and of such extraordinary eloquence, supported and improved by knowledge, that he gained almost as great an authority under a republican government as if he had been a monarch; but yet he could not escape the satirical strokes of the comic poets. His dissoluteness with women was one of the vices with which he was chiefly charged. He died the third year of the Peloponnesian war, after long sickness, which had weakened his understanding. Aspasia, Pericles's favourite, was a learned woman of Miletus: she taught Socrates rhetoric and politics. As Pericles cared not much for his wife, he willingly gave her up to another, and married Aspasia, whom he passionately loved.

PERICRANIUM, in Anatomy, a thick solid coat or membrane covering the outside of the cranium or skull. See ANATOMY, ΝΟ 4.

PERIGEE, in Astronomy, that point of the sun or moon's orbit wherein they are at the least distance from the earth; in which sense it stands opposed to apogee.

PERIGORD, a province of France, which makes part of Guienne, bounded on the north by Angoumois and a part of Marche, and on the east by Quercy and Limosin; on the south by Agenois and Bazadois; and on the west, by Bourledois, Angumois, and a part of Saintonge. It is about 83 miles in length, and 60 in breadth. It abounds in iron mines, and the air is pure and healthy. Perigueux is the capital town.

PERIGORD-Stone, is supposed to be an ore of manganese, of a dark gray colour, like basalt.

PERIGRAPHE, a word usually understood to express a careless or inaccurate delineation of any thing; but in Vesalius it is used to express the white lines or impressions that appear on the musculus rectus of the abdomen. PERIGUEUX,

+

S

Perigueux PERIGUEUX, an ancient town of France, capital of the province of Perigord, seated on the river Isle, Period. in E. Long. o. 33. N. Lat. 45. 18. It is remarkable for the ruins of the temple of Venus, and an amphitheatre.

PERIHELIUM, in Astronomy, that part of a planet or comet's orbit wherein it is in its least distance from the sun; in which sense it stands in opposition to aphelium.

PERIMETER, in Geometry, the bounds or limits of any figure or body. The perimeters of surfaces or figures are lines; those of bodies are surfaces. In circular figures, instead of perimeter, we say circumference, or periphery.

PERINÆUM, or PERINEUM, in Anatomy, the space between the anus and the parts of generation, divided into two equal lateral divisions by a very distinct line, which is longer in males than in females.

PERIOD, in Astronomy, the time taken up by a star or planet in making a revolution round the sun; or the duration of its course till it return to the same part of its orbit. See PLANET.

The different periods and mean distances of the several planets are as follows:

There is a wonderful harmony between the distances of the planets from the sun, and their periods round him; the great law whereof is, that the squares of the periodical times of the primary planet, are to each other as the cubes of their distances from the sun? and likewise, the squares of the periodical times of the secondaries of any planet are to each other as the cubes of their distances from that primary. This harmony among the planets is one of the greatest confirmations of the Copernican hypothesis. See ASTRONOMY, p. 100 and 101.

For the periods of the moon, see MOON, ASTRONOMY Index.

The periods of several comets are now pretty well ascertained. See ASTRONOMY, No 306.

PERIOD, in Chronology, denotes a revolution of a certain number of years, or a series of years, whereby, in different nations, and on different occasions, time is measured; such are the following.

Calippic PERIOD, a system of seventy-six years. See CALIPPIC, and ASTRONOMY, No 11, &c.

Dionysian PERIOD, or Victorian Period, a system of 532 luna-solar and Julian years; which being elapsed, the characters of the moon fall again upon the same day and feria, and revolve in the same order, according to the opinion of the ancients.

This period is otherwise called the great paschal cycle, because the Christian church first used it to find the true time of the pascha or easter. The sum of these years arises by multiplying together the cycles of the

sun and moon.

2

Hipparchus's PERIOD, is a series of 304 solar years, Period. returning in a constant round, and restoring the new and full moons to the same day of the solar year, according to the sentiment of Hipparchus. This period arises by multiplying the Calippic period by four.— Hipparchus assumed the quantity of the solar year to be 365 days 5 hours 55' 12"; and hence concluded, that in 104 years Calippus's period would err a whole day. He therefore multiplied the period by four, and from the product cast away an entire day. But even this does not restore the new and full moons to the same day throughout the whole period; but they are sometimes anticipated 1 day 8 hours 23′ 29′′ 20′′. See ASTRONOMY, No 14.

Julian PERIOD. See JULIAN.

PERIOD, in Grammar, denotes a small compass of discourse, containing a perfect sentence, and distinguished at the end by a point, or full stop, thus (.); and in members or divisions marked by commas, colons, &c.

Father Buffier observes two difficulties in the use of the period, or point; i. e. in distinguishing it from the colon, or double point; and in determining justly the end of a period, or perfect sentence. It is remarked that the supernumerary members of a period, separated from the rest by colons and semicolons, usually commence with a conjunction: yet it is true these same conjunctions sometimes rather begin new periods than supernumerary members of old ones. It is the sense of things, and the author's own discretion, that must make the proper distinction which of the two in effect it is. No rules will be of any service, unless this be admitted as one, that when what follows the conjunction is of as much extent as what precedes it, it is usually a new pe,iod; otherwise not.

The second difficulty arises hence, that the sense appears perfect in several short detached phrases, wherein it does not seem there should be periods; a thing prequent in free discourse: as, We are all in suspense: make your proposals immediately: you will be to blame for detaining us longer. Where it is evident, that simple phrases have perfect senses like periods, and ought to be marked accordingly; but that the shortness of the discourse making them easily comprehended, the pointing is neglected.

Rhetori

De Colonia defines period a short but perfect sentence, consisting of certain parts or members, depending one on another, and connected together by some common vinculum. The celebrated definition of Aristotle is, a period is a discourse which has a beginning, a middle, and an end, all visible at one view. cians consider period, which treats of the structure of sentences, as one of the four parts of composition. The periods allowed in oratory are three: A period of two members, called by the Greeks dicolos, and by the Latins bimembris; a period of three members, triculas, trimembris; and a period of four, quadrimembris,tetracolos. See PUNCTUATION.

PERIOD, in numbers, is a distinction made by a point or comma, after every sixth place, or figure; and is used in numeration, for the readier distinguishing and naming the several figures or places; which see under NUMERA

Period

course or circle of such disease; or its progress from any state through all the rest till it return to the same Peripate again. ties. Galen describes period as a time composed of an intension and remission; whence it is usually divided into two parts, the paroxysm or exacerbation, and remission.

In intermitting fevers, the periods are usually stated and regular; in other diseases, as the epilepsy, gout, &c. they are vague or irregular.

PERIOD, in Oratory. See there, No 47.

PERIODIC, or PERIODICAL, something that terminates and comprehends a period; such is a periodic month; being the space of time wherein the moon dispatches her period.

PERIOECI, gioios, in Geography, such inhabitants of the earth as have the same latitudes, but opposite longitudes, or live under the same parallel and the same meridian, but in different semicircles of that meridian, or in opposite points of the parallel. These have the same common seasons throughout the year, and the same phenomena of the heavenly bodies; but when it is noonday with the one, it is midnight with the other, there being twenty-four hours in an east or west direction. These are found on the globe by the hour-index, or by turning the globe half round, that is, 180 degrees either

way.

PERIOSTEUM, or PERIOSTIUM, in Anatomy, a nervous vascular membrane, endued with a very quick sense, immediately surrounding, in every part, both the internal and external surfaces of all the bones in the body, excepting only so much of the teeth as stand above the gums, and the peculiar places on the bones in which the muscles are inserted. It is hence divided into the external and internal periosteum; and where it externally surrounds the bones of the skull, it is generally called the pericranium. See ANATOMY Index.

PERIPATETICS, philosophers, followers of Aristotle, and maintainers of the peripatetic philosophy; called also Aristotelians. Cicero says, that Plato left two excellent disciples, Xenocrates and Aristotle, who founded two sects, which only differed in name: the former took the appellation of Academics, who were those that continued to hold their conferences in the Academy, as Plato had done before; the others, who followed Aristotle, were called Peripatetics, from ignaTEN, "I walk;" because they disputed walking in the Lyceum.

Ammonius derives the name Peripatetic from Plate himself, who only taught walking; and adds, that the disciples of Aristotle, and those of Xenocrates, were equally called Peripatetics; the one Peripatetics of the Academy, the other Peripatetics of the Lyceum: but that in time the former quitted the title Peripatetic for that of Academic, on account of the place where they assembled; and the latter retained simply that of Peripatetic. The greatest and best part of Aristotle's philosophy was borrowed from Plato. Serranus asserts, and says he could demonstrate, that there is nothing exquisite in any part of Aristotle's philosophy, dialectics, ethics, politics, physics, or metaphysics, but is found in Plato. And of this opinion are many of the ancient authors, such as Clemens Alexandrinus, &c. Gale attempts to show, that Aristotle borrowed a good deal of his philosophy, both physical, about the first matter,

and metaphysical about the first being, his affections, truth, unity, goodness, &c. from the Scriptures; and adds from Clearchus, one of Aristotle's scholars, that he made use of a certain Jew, who assisted him therein. Aristotle's philosophy preserved itself in puris naturalibus for a long time: in the earlier ages of Christianity, the Platonic philosophy was generally preferred; but this did not prevent the doctrine of Aristotle from forcing its way into the Christian church. Towards the end of the fifth century, it rose into great credit; the Platonics interpreting in their schools some of the writings of Aristotle, particularly his dialectics, and recommending them to young persons. This appears to have been the first step to that universal dominion which Aristotle afterwards obtained among the learned, which was at the same time much promoted by the controversies which Origen had occasioned. This father was zealously attached to the Platonic system; and therefore, after his condemnation, many, to avoid the imputation of his errors, and to prevent their being counted among the number of his followers, openly adopted the philosophy of Aristotle. Nor was any philosophy more proper for furnishing those weapons of subtle distinctions and captious sophisms, which were used in the Nestorian, Arian, and Eutychian controversies. About the end of the sixth century, the Aristotelian philosophy, as well as science in general, was almost universally decried ; and it was chiefly owing to Boetius, who explained and recommended it, that it obtained a higher degree of credit among the Latins than it had hitherto enjoyed. Towards the end of the seventh century, the Greeks abandoned Plato to the monks, and gave themselves up entirely to the direction of Aristotle; and in the next century, the Peripatetic philosophy was taught everywhere in their public schools, and propagated in all places with considerable success. John Damascenus very much contributed to its credit and influence, by composing a concise, plain, and comprehensive view of the doctrines of the Stagirite, for the instruction of the more ignorant, and in a manner adapted to common capacities. Under the patronage of Photius, and the protection of Bardas, the study of philosophy for some time declined, but was revived again about the end of the ninth century. About the middle of the 11th century, a revolution in philosophy commenced in France; when several famous logicians, who followed Aristotle as their guide, took nevertheless the liberty of illustrating and modelling anew his philosophy, and extending it far beyond its ancient limits. In the 12th century, three methods of teaching philosophy were in use by the different doctors: the first was the ancient and plain method, which confined its researches to the philosophical notions of Porphyry, and the dialectic system, commonly attributed to St Augustine, and in which was laid down this general rule, that philosophical inquiries were to be limited to a small number of subjects, lest by their becoming too extensive, religion might suffer by a profane mixture of human subtilty with its divine wisdom. The second method was called the Aristotelian, because it consisted in explications of the works of that philosopher, several of whose books being translated into Latin, were almost everywhere in the hands of the learned. The third was termed the free method, employed by such as were bold enough to search $ 2

after

ties

Perirrhanterum.

of Rome. The Hebrews also had a vessel for purifi- Perir.han

cation.

PERISCII, in Geography, the inhabitants of either frigid zone, between the polar circles and the poles, 、 where the sun, when in the summer signs, moves only round about them, without setting; and consequently their shadows in the same day turn to all the points of the horizon.

Peripate after truth, in the manner the most adapted to render their inquiries successful, without rejecting the succours of Aristotle and I'lato. A reformed system of the Peripatetic philosophy was first introduced into the schools in the university of Paris, from whence it soon spread throughout Europe; and has subsisted in some universities even to this day, under the name of school philosophy. The foundation thereof is Aristotle's doctrine, often misunderstood, but oftener misapplied: whence the retainers thereto may be denominated Reformed Peripatetics. Out of these have sprung, at various times, several branches; the chief are, the THOMISTS, SCOTISTS, and NOMINALISTS. See these articles.

The Peripatetic system, after having prevailed with great and extensive dominion for many centuries, began rapidly to decline towards the close of the 17th, when the disciples of Ramus attacked it on the one hand, and it had still more formidable adversaries to encounter in Descartes, Gassendi, and Newton. See PHILOSOPHY.

PERIPATON, in antiquity, the name of that walk in the Lyceum where Aristotle taught, and whence the name of Peripatetics given to his followers.

PERIPETIA, in the drama, that part of a tragedy wherein the action is turned, the plot unravelled, and the whole concludes. See CATASTROPHE.

PERIPHERY, in Geometry, the circumference of a circle, ellipsis, or any other regular curvilinear figure. See GEOMETRY.

PERIPHRASIS, circumlocution, formed of gi, "about," and exw, " I speak ;" in rhetoric, a circuit or tour of words, much affected by orators, to avoid common and trite manners of expression. The periphrasis is of great use on some occasions; and it is often necessary to make things be conceived which are not proper to name. It is sometimes polite to suppress the names, and only intimate or design them. These turns of expression are also particularly serviceable in oratory; for the sublime admitting of no direct citations, there must be a compass taken to insinuate the authors whose authority is borrowed. A periphrasis, by turning round a proper name to make it understood, amplifies and raises the discourse; but care must be taken it be not too much swelled, nor extended, mal à propos; in which case it becomes flat and languid. See CIRCUMLOCUTION and ORATORY.

PERIPLOCA, VIRGINIAN SILK : a genus of plants belonging to the pentandria class; and in the natural method ranking under the 30th order, Contorta. See BOTANY Index.

PERIPNEUMONY, пgμovia, formed from περί, " about,” and πνευμων, lungs," in Medicine, an inflammation of some part of the thorax, properly of the Jungs; attended with an acute fever, and a difficulty of breathing. See MEDICINE, N° 184.

PERIRRMANTERIUM, a vessel of stone or brass which was filled with holy water, and with which all those were sprinkled who were admitted by the ancients to their sacrifices. Beyond this vessel no profane person was allowed to pass. We are told by some, that it was placed in the adytum, or inmost recess of the temple; others say it was placed at the door, which indeed seems to be the most likely opinion. It was used both by Greeks and Romans, and has been evidently borrowed, like many other Pagan ceremonies, by the church

PERISTALTIC, a vermicular spontaneous motion of the intestines, performed by the contraction of the circular and longitudinal fibres of which the fleshy coats of the intestines are composed; by means whereof the chyle is driven into the orifices of the lacteal veins, and the faces are protruded towards the anus.

PERISTYLE, in Ancient Architecture, a building encompassed with a row of columns on the inside.

PERITONEUM, in Anatomy, is a thin, smooth, and lubricous membrane, investing the whole internal surface of the abdomen, and containing most of the viscera of that part as it were in a bag. See ANATOMY Index.

PERITROCHIUM, in Mechanics, denotes a wheel, or circle, concentric with the base of a cylinder, and moveable together with it about its axis. See ME

CHANICS.

PERJURY, in Law, is defined by Sir Edward Coke to be a crime committed when a lawful oath is administered, in some judicial proceeding, to a person who swears wilfully, absolutely, and falsely, in a matter material to the issue or point in question. In ancient times it was in some places punished with death; in others it made the false swearer liable to the punishment due to the crime he had charged the innocent person with; in others a pecuniary mulct was imposed. But though it escaped human, yet it was thought, amongst the ancients in general, that the divine vengeance would most certainly overtake it; and there are many severe inflictions from the hand of God upon record, as monuments of the abhorrence in which this atrocious crime is held by the Deity. The souls of the deceased were supposed to be employed in punishing perjured persons. Even the inanimate creation was thought to take revenge for this crime. The Greeks supposed that no person could swear falsely by Styx without some remarkable punishment; and that no person guilty of perjury could enter the cave of Palæmon at Corinth without being made a me morable example of divine justice. In Sicily, at the temple of the Palici, there were fountains called Delli, from which issued boiling water, with flames and balls of fire; and we are told that if any person swore falsely near them, he was instantly struck dumb, blind, lame, or dead, or was swallowed up by the waters. But although perjury was thus held in general abhorrence, notwithstanding the credit which was given to such accounts of divine inflictions, it was so much practised. by the Greeks, that Græra fides became a proverb. Lovers perjuries, however, were supposed to pass unnoticed, or to be very slightly punished with blackness of the nails, a decayed tooth, or some small diminution of beauty.

The ancient philosophers, however, were so afraid of perjury, that even an oath before a judge was never admitted but for want of other proof. Plato's precept "Not to administer an oath wantonly, but on deep grounds, and with the strictest caution."" Ulpian gives

was,

Perjury,