ary works. In the disputes and controversies which have subsequently sprung from the competition of the companies of the lines constructed with these two gauges, much needless complexity and obscurity have been introduced. What, let us ask, is the difference between two railways, having different gauges? What virtue is there in 561 inches or in 72 inches, rather than any other width greater or less, or intermediate? Nothing can be more simple or obvious than the answer to this question. Railways, like all other structures or systems of mechanism, may be constructed on any desired scale of magnitude. Railways in Lilliput would be in all their dimensions smaller than railways in Brobdignag. But between the different dimensions a certain harmony or proportion must be maintained. True, this proportion is not rigorously invariable, but still in the main it must be observed within certain narrow limits. One of these dimensions is the distance between the rails. In great and powerful railways, destined for a large and extensive traffic, that distance must be greater than in smaller lines, intended to accommodate a less amount of transit; for that width may be assumed to be the most obvious, the most convenient, and the most exact modulus of all the dimensions of the road. But this principle must not be applied with mere reference to the commercial exigencies of each individual line. It is necessary to consider that the various lines which articulate a country or the section of a country, must run into each other, and that the carriages and engines working on branches must be capable of running on the main lines from which these branches diverge. Hence all lines of railway which communicate with each other ought to have the same gauge. Whatever magnitude of gauge, therefore, may be deemed sufficient for the traffic of the great main or trunk lines, must be adopted by all other lines great and small which are to form parts of the same sys tem. In commencing to construct a system of railways through a country, it is, however, impossible for any degree of foresight to enable us to predict what future intercommunications may be ad vantageous or requisite, and it would evidently, therefore, be desirable, unless some good reason exist to the contrary, to lay down all railways, without exception, in the same country, with one uniform gauge. In that case, however, care should be taken to adopt a gauge of sufficient magnitude for any future demands of increasing commerce that can be reasonably expected. An excess of width is evidently more advisable than a stinted magnitude. These views, however apparent now, did not present themselves until the railway system had made such progress in England that their complete realization became impracticable. Two gauges had been adopted. One, the original 561 inch gauge, was common to a very large proportion of the lines. The other, the 72 inch gauge, was that of the main artery, which, taking a westward direction from London to Bristol, reached the centre of the south-western peninsula formed by the counties of Somerset, Devon, and Cornwall. The evil so far was irremediable. If we had now a tabula rasa, and were, with our present knowledge, commencing a system of railways in England it is certain that the first measure of the Legislature would be to render imperative an uniform gauge. But it is not so evident what the measure of this gauge would be. The 56 inch gauge would perhaps have been considered too small, not for the present exigencies of business, but for the probably future traffic. On the other hand, the gigantic scale inferred by a 72 inch gauge, and the proportionably increased expense, would have deterred prudent calculators from its adoption. An intermediate magnitude would doubtless have been selected. As matters now stand, the 564 inch gauge appears likely to prevail, for ages to come, in every part of the globe. The total length of railway already in operation in England, amounts to above 2,000 miles, of which 1,800 miles are laid with the 56 inch gauge. In every other part of the world where railways have been constructed or projected, this latter gauge has been universally adopted. In the period of some sixteen or seventeen years, which have elapsed since the locomotive engine, on railways, has been applied to the rapid transport of passengers, its powers have undergone gradual development, although no signal advance has been made by the adoption of any new mechanical principle in its construction. Machines of greater magnitude and powers are now constructed than were formerly used. This increase of weight has rendered proportionably increased strength in the rails necessary. The original rails laid down on the Manchester and Liverpool line had a weight of less than 40 lbs. per yard. This was soon after increased to 50 lbs., and rails weighing 75 lbs. were subsequently used. It is probable that even a stronger rail may still be adopted. The augmented power of the machines have given them greater capacity for speed, and also greater power of traction in respect to the amount of load. But as passenger business is in general more regarded, and found to be more profitable, than merchandise, increased speed seems to have been the object to which, mainly, the efforts of engineers have of late years been directed; and it cannot be denied that considerable success has been attained in this respect. As might be expected, the British railways have taken the lead of all others in mechanical improvements. The rivalry of the broad gauge and narrow gauge lines has in a great degree stimulated this progress of locomotion. At present, on the principal English railways, there are three classes of trains, in which different degrees of expedition and accommodation are offered to the public, and for which a different tariff of prices is fixed. In a country so thickly peopled as Great Britain, considerable towns and villages are thickly sprinkled over those districts, more especially, through which the main lines of railway are conducted. For the accommodation of such places, very frequent stoppages are necessary. Thus, between London and Bristol, on the Great Western railway, in a distance of 118 miles, there are twenty-five stations; being at the average rate of one for every five miles. Of these, fourteen are considerable places. It is evident that trains which supply all these places, cannot make great average speed. The trains which stop at all the stations on this line, take nine hours to complete the trip, giving an average speed, including stoppages, of not more than thirteen miles an hour. On the London and Birmingham line, the corresponding trains complete the trip of 112 miles in a little less than eight hours; giving very nearly the same average rate. In these trains, which are distinguished by the appellation of cheap trains, the fare is at the rate of a penny (two cents) per mile, for each passenger. The trains which stop only at considerable towns, attain a much greater average speed, and often much better accommodation in the construction of the carriages. On the Great Western Railway, these proceed at the average rate of twenty-seven miles an hour, stoppages included, and when in full speed, have a velocity of thirty-one miles an hour. On the London and Birmingham line, the speed of the corresponding trains, stoppages included, is twenty-five miles, and when in full speed, their rate is twentyseven miles. These trains consist of carriages of two kinds. First-class coaches are constructed with all the elegance and luxury of the best private carriages. Each passenger, however, has a separate seat, or stall, cushioned, not only at the back, but at each side, so that the passengers cannot press upon or incommode each other. The second-class carriages are not cushioned, nor are the passengers separated. They sit on parallel benches, facing each other. The carriages have roofs, but are open at the sides. The third-class carriages (in which alone the fare is so low as a penny a mile) are open wagons, without roofs or cushions, but supplied with benches. In the first-class carriages, the fare is generally from two pence to two pence halfpenny (from four to five cents) per mile, and in the second-class, about one-third less. The extreme rapidity of transit is reserved for the chief places only on each main line, and is performed by what are called Express Trains. The extraordinary speed to which these trains have attained would have been regarded, even by sanguine speculators, a few years ago, as a physical impossibility. Nor has this incredible expedition as yet attained its limit. While we are writing this report, engines are in progress and are under trial by which even greater speed has already been attained in experimental trips. The distance from London to Exeter is 194 miles. An express train leaves London twice a day at a quarter before ten in the morning and at half past five in the evening. The morning train reaches Didcot at ten minutes before eleven, performing fifty-three miles in sixtyfive minutes, being at the rate of forty nine miles an hour! It arrives at Swindon (77 miles from London) at twenty-three minutes after eleven. After a delay of ten minutes at this station it proceeds, touches at Bath (106 miles) at nine minutes past twelve, and reaches Bristol (118 miles) at twenty-eight minutes past twelve. Delaying five minutes at Bristol, it starts for Exeter, stops at Taunton, and arrives at Exeter (194 miles) at a quarter past two. If the stoppages, and the time lost at each stoppage in gradually retarding the train when it comes to rest, and gradually accelerating it or "getting up the speed," be taken at thirty minutes, (half of which time is actually consumed at Swindon and Bristol,) the whole time of the trip at full speed would be four hours, being at the average rate of 48 miles per hour! The actual rate from terminus to terminus, stoppages included, is 43 miles per hour. The express trains consist of first and second class carriages. The fare in the first-class coaches is at the rate of threepence (six cents) per mile, and that in the secondclass at the rate of twopence (four cents) per mile. The speed of the express trains on the other lines is rather less than on the Great Western. On the Birmingham line the Express Train leaves London at five o'clock in the afternoon, and reaches Birmingham at eight o'clock, stopping at Wolverton (52 miles) at twenty minutes past six, and at Coventry (94 miles) at twenty-five minutes past seven. The entire trip of 112 miles, including the stoppages, is done in three hours, being at the rate of 371⁄2 miles an hour; and, exclusive of stoppages, the rate is 40 miles an hour! The fare by this train is twopence halfpenny (five cents) per mile. It is necessary here to observe that these are not the results of experimental trips expressly prepared for the exhibition of extreme velocity, in which it is possible to suppose the machinery to be expressly put into racing order, and things so managed as would not be practicable in the common working of the road. What we have stated is, on the contrary, what takes place in the ordinary and regular working of the line, the trains starting at hours regularly advertised, and open to the use of the public. This expedition exceeding the bounds of all former belief, seems however not to satisfy the ambition of the railway conductors or the desires of the public, and engines have recently been constructed on different lines capable even of more astonishing results. An engine has recently been put upon the Great Western Railway, which actually made the trip from London to Exeter (194 miles) in three hours and twenty-eight minutes. The stoppages for refreshments and an accidental interruption were equivalent to twenty-eight minutes, so that the actual time of the trip may be taken as three hours, giving an average rate of traveling of very near sixty-five miles per hour! During the trip, however, the speed sometimes attained seventyone miles an hour!! The same engine, on another occasion, took a train of coaches weighing ninety tons, from Paddington to Didcot, a distance of fiftythree miles in fifty-one minutes! Thus it appears that this extraordinary power is not confined to the traction of small loads but is applicable to heavy trains. An ordinary first-class railway carriage, such as are used on the European lines, weighs about three tons, and it carries about twenty passengers. A third-class carriage, weighing 2 tons, will carry about fifty passengers. Such a load, therefore, as the following would be taken by this engine at above sixty miles an hour: When it is remembered that writers of acknowledged practical experience and scientific attainments demonstrated, or professed to demonstrate, twenty years ago, that it was physically and mechanically impossible for a locomotive to take a load of twenty tons on a railway at so great a speed as thirteen miles an hour, the intelligent and reflecting reader will ask, where shall we expect to stop in this career of progress? Where does the possible end and the impossible begin? What is a miracle? Whose predictions, either of what will be done or what cannot be done, are we to believe? Twenty years ago, a man who would have declared that a machine could be constructed by which six or seven hundred men, with their luggage, could be transported over the surface of the earth with the speed of a hurricane, would have been pronounced to be a fit occupant of no place but Bedlam-his affairs would have been consigned to the care of his friends, and proper guardians of his person would have been nominated!! Yet this is now a matter of everyday occurrence, and no one wonders at it, or troubles himself about it. A rational curiosity will be felt as to the conditions on which the attainment of these astonishing speeds depends, and as those conditions are neither difficult to be understood, or doubtful, so far as they depend on the species of locomotive power now in use, it will not be uninteresting here briefly to explain them. boiler shall supply twenty cylinders full of steam per second to the cylinders, and Third, that the cylinders shall discharge these twenty measures of steam into the chimney. Thus, in the brief interval of time, which elapses between two successive ticks of a common clock, the train moves over thirty-five yards, the slides of each cylinder are shifted ten times, and the steam is ten times admitted to, and ten times discharged from, each cylinder. The movements of various massive parts of this ponderous and colossal machine are, therefore, executed with such celerity and precision, that when the train is advancing uniformly at seventy miles an hour, these movements divide time into tenths of a second with as much precision as could be accomplished by the exquisite mechanism of the astronomer's chronometer! But to turn from what is astonishing in this performance to the examination of the causes which appear to determine the limitation of its increase, we must first observe that the origin of the moving power is the rate at which the furnace is capable of producing the evaporation of water in the boiler. In the case above mentioned, twenty cylindrical measures of highly compressed steam per second must be supplied. If each cylinder contains 1 cubic feet, and the steam be worked in the cylinder at forty-five pounds pressure, each cylinder of steam would correspond to about six cubic inches of water, and twenty such measures would consume a hundred and twenty cubic inches of water. This would require to be evaporated, exclusive of waste, about two hundred and forty cubic feet of water per hour, which is equivalent to about fifteen hundred gallons. Every one knows that the progressive motion of the locomotive-engine is produced by the large or driving wheels being made to revolve by arms which are attached to them, or to the axle on which they are fixed. These arms work them exactly in the same manner as a man works a windlass. The ends of these arms are attached by a joint to the piston rod of the engine, so that every motion to and fro made by the piston, will necessarily produce one revolution of the driving wheels, and consequently make the engine advance through a length of road equal to the circumference of those wheels. Let us suppose that these wheels are seven feet high, which is their magnitude on some of the English engines. Their circumference is then about seven yards. One motion of the pistons to and fro will then advance the engine seven yards. But to produce one motion to and fro of the piston, it is necessary to admit steam at one end of the cylinder, and discharge it at the other, and then to admit it at the latter, and to discharge it at the former. It is necessary, therefore, to open and close the two steam valves and discharge valves once, and as this takes place for each of two cylinders, there are four such motions while the engine moves over seven yards, and there are four cylinders full of steam supplied by the boiler. to the cylinders, and discharged by the latter into the chimney. If the train moves at the rate of seventy miles an hour, it will move over thirtyfive yards per second. This will require five revolutions of the driving wheels, and will consequently require-First, that the steam and discharge valves shall be opened and closed on each cylinder, ten times per second. Second, that the This evaporation will be perceived to be enormous, and let it be remembered how limited is the capacity of the fireplace of a locomotive. We have ourselves witnessed in a single trip of forty miles, a new set of grate-bars FUSED by the intense action of the fire. There is no mere mechanical expedient that can supersede the necessity for this evaporation. Change the dimensions of your wheels, and you may modify the velocity of the slides, the eccentrics and the other moving parts; vary the proportions of the cylinder, and you may modify the velocity of the piston, but make what changes you will in the details of the mechanism, you must produce the requisite quantity of steam per minute, otherwise the speed cannot be attained. It is scarcely necessary to say that the fuel used should be such as in a given weight, to have the greatest heating power. Coke is universally used in England, and it has been found that the quality of the coke materially affects the speed. Thus the coke obtained from gas-works is inadmissible. The great railway companies make their own coke, and the best Newcastle coal is preferred for this purpose. It would not be consistent with the limits of this notice, nor the objects of our work, to go into the details of the mechanism of the locomotive, but we have indicated enough to suggest to the unprofessional reader, what are generally the characters of the obstacles against which the railway projector has to contend. When it is intended to adopt those high speeds much greater strength and stability of structure must be given to the road itself than is required on lines where lesser speeds only are attempted. In England, accordingly, the weight and strength of the rails, and the security of the fastenings, have been continually augmented from year to year, as the speed has been increased. Curves, when the radius is short, are inadmissible at high speed. Except at particular places, no curves were allowed on the English railways with a radius of less than a mile. We are, however, inclined to think that this caution has been carried to a needless extent by English engineers, and that a half-mile radius might have been allowed. The error, however, if error it be, has been on the safe side. It appears, then, that the structure of the railways which have been constructed, not only in England, but in other parts of Europe, is such as to admit of the greatest speed of trains which has yet been attained. When these results, actual and prospective, are considered by the practical man and the statesman or economist, it will immediately occur to him, to inquire at what cost of original capital sunk, and at what current expense to the public, this prodigiously accelerated traffic can be established and continued. In estimating the cost of constructing and working different railways, so as to compare one with another, and draw from the comparison inferences of any practical utility some reference to the length of the line must be made. A large part of the expense of railways in thickly inhabited parts of Europe consists in the construction of the chief stations at the termini of great trunk lines. This will be understood when we state that the stations of some of the great lines at London have been constructed at an expense considerably above a million of dollars. Now whether the line be long or short, whether it measure 50 miles or 150 miles, the cost of these stations will be nearly the same. Therefore, in proportion to their length, shorter lines may be expected, ceteris paribus, to be more expensive than longer ones. In England the expense of obtaining the necessary legislative authorization is always considerable, and in some cases has been excessive. Thus it is not a very uncommon thing for a single company to disburse a million of dollars in parliamentary expenses alone. In comparing English with foreign railways, this is to be taken into account. The railway connecting London with Birmingham measures 112 miles, and its several branches measure 63 miles, making a total of 176 miles of railway of double track. It is laid with rails varying in weight, but chiefly 75 pounds per yard. The principal turnpike roads which intersect it are carried either over it or under it by bridges, constructed at the expense of the company; and where it intersects a farm, the company is bound to supply a bridge of communication. The sides are also properly fenced so as to prevent cattle from getting on the road. The total capital expended by this company up to June, 1846, has been £7,417,217, or nearly seven millions and one half sterling. This is at the rate of £42,133 per mile. The Midland Counties' railways connect the great central towns, Manchester, Sheffield, Derby, Nottingham, and Leeds, and have a total length of 169 miles, being a few miles less than the London and Birmingham line, with its branches. The total amount of capital sunk by this company is £6,636,105, or a little over six million and one half sterling, which gives a cost per mile of £39,267. These rates of capital sunk are not extreme in comparing the English railways one with another. The Liverpool and Manchester, a line thirty-one miles in length, has cost at the rate of £57,237 per mile: while the grand junction between Birmingham and Liverpool cost only £21,827 per mile. |