of a wider public, and the progress in the art of advertising | as applied to the Press. The following sections on the more important newspapers in London and the Provinces fill in the remaining details of the history of the British Press, so far as they are substantially important or interesting. Much that is in its nature ephemeral or trivial is necessarily passed over. Post." Modern London Newspapers. The Morning Post (oldest of existing London daily papers) dates from 1772. For some years it was in the hands of Henry Bate (Sir Henry Bate Dudley), and it attained some degree of "Morning temporary popularity, though of no very enviable sort. In 1795 the entire copyright, with house and printing materials, was sold for £600 to Peter and Daniel Stuart, who quickly raised the position of the Post by enlisting Sir James Mackintosh and the poet Coleridge in its service, and also by giving unremitting attention to advertisements and to the copious supply of incidental news and amusing paragraphs. There has been much controversy about the share which Coleridge had in elevating the Post from obscurity to eminence. That he greatly promoted this result there can be no doubt. His famous "Character of Pitt," published in 1800, was especially successful, and created a demand for the particular number in which it appeared that lasted for weeks, a thing almost without precedent. Coleridge wrote for this paper from 1795 until 1802, and during that period its circulation in ordinary rose from 350 copies, on the average, to 4500. Whatever the amount of rhetorical hyperbole in Fox's saying-recorded as spoken in the House of Commons-" Mr Coleridge's essays in the Morning Post led to the rupture of the treaty of Amiens," it is none the less a striking testimony, not only to Coleridge's powers as a publicist, but to the position which the newspaper press had won, in spite of innumerable obstacles at that time. The list of his fellow-workers in the Post is a most brilliant and varied one. Besides Mackintosh, Southey and Arthur Young, it included a galaxy of poets. Many of the lyrics of Moore, many of the social verses of Mackworth Praed, some of the noblest sonnets of Wordsworth, were first published in the columns of the Post. And the story of the paper, in its early days, had tragic as well as poetic episodes. In consequence of offence taken at some of its articles, the editor and proprietor, Nicholas Byrne (who succeeded Daniel Stuart), was assaulted and murdered whilst sitting in his office. Up to about 1850 the history of the Morning Post offers little to record; with the Morning Chronicle and Morning Herald, and having a smaller circulation than either of them, it was being rapidly eclipsed in London journalism by The Times (see below), and in 1847 only sold some three thousand copies. Heavily in debt to Messrs J. and T. B. Crompton, the paper manufacturers, it had been taken over by them; and in that year the management was entrusted to Peter Borthwick (1804-1852), a Scotsman who, after graduation both at Edinburgh and Cambridge, had taken to politics in the Conservative interest and had sat in parliament for Evesham from 1835 to 1838 and from 1841 to 1847, when he was almost ruined by fighting an election petition in which he was unseated. Peter Borthwick took the task of reviving the paper seriously in hand, and in a few years was already improving its position when he fell ill and died; and he was succeeded in 1852 by his son Algernon Borthwick, afterwards Lord Glenesk (1830-1908). The later history of the paper is primarily connected with its practical re-establishment and successful conduct under the latter. Algernon Borthwick had been its Paris correspondent from 1850, and had shown social gifts and journalistic acumen of great promise. When he became managing editor in 1852 he devoted himself with such energy to the work that in seven years the debt on the business had been paid off. He gave the paper a strong political colour, Conservative, Imperialist and Protectionist; and in the 'fifties and 'sixties Borthwick was a keen supporter of Lord Palmerston. After the death of Mr Crompton, his nephew, Mr Rideout, the principal surviving partner in the paper manufacturing firm, was so impressed with Borthwick's success that he vested the entire control of the paper in him for life; and on Mr Rideout's death in 1877, Borthwick was enabled, by the help of his friend Andrew Montague, to buy the property and become sole proprietor The Morning Post had now become, largely through Borthwick's own social qualities, the principal organ of the fashionable world; but in 1881 he took what was then considered the hazardous step of reducing its price from threepence to a penny, and appealing no longer to the "threepenny public" with The Times but to a wider clientèle with the Daily Telegraph and Standard. The result was a ten-fold increase in circulation and a financial success exceeding all anticipations. Borthwick himself, who was knighted in 1880, and was created a baronet in 1887, had entered parliament in 1880 for Evesham, and from 1885 to 1895 sat for South Kensington, being finally raised to the peerage in 1895. His political gifts naturally increased the influence of the paper; he supported the "Tory democracy" and was an active worker for the Primrose League, of which he was three times chancellor; and the Morning Post, under his control, became one of the great organs of opinion en the Conservative side. From 1880 onwards he devolved the editorial duties on others, at first Sir William Hardman, and then successively Mr A. K. Moore, Mr Algernon Locker, Mr James Nicol Courier) and Mr Fabian Ware; under them the literary standard of Dunn (from 1897 to 1905; afterwards editor of the Manchester the paper was kept at a high level, and constant improvements were introduced; and the staff included a number of well-known writers, notably Mr Spencer Wilkinson (b. 1853), who in 1909 was appointed professor of military history at Oxford. From 1897 till his death in 1905, at the age of thirty-two, Lord Glenesk's son, Oliver Borthwick, had much to do with the managerial side. On Lord Glenesk's own death on the 24th November 1908, the proprietorship passed to the trustees of his only surviving child, a daughter, who in 1893 had married the 7th Earl Bathurst. "The Times." The Times is usually dated from the 1st of January 1788, but was really started by John Walter on the 1st of January 1785, under the title of The London Daily Universal Register, printed logographically. On its reaching its 940th issue its name was changed. The logographic or "word-printing" process had been invented by a printer named Henry Johnson several years before, and found a warm advocate in John Walter, who expounded its peculiarities at great length in No. 510 of his Daily Universal Register. In a later number he stated, very amusingly, his reasons for adopting the altered title, which the enterprise and ability of his successors (see WALTER, JOHN) made world-famous. Within two years John Walter had his share in the Georgian persecutions of the press, by successive sentences to three fines and to three several imprisonments in Newgate, chiefly for having stated that the prince of Wales and the dukes of York and Clarence had so misconducted themselves "as to incur the just disapprobation of his Majesty.' In 1803 the management was transferred (together with the joint proprietorship of the journal) to his son, John Walter (2), by whom it was carried on with extraordinary energy and consummate ability, and at the same time with marked independence. To Lord Sid mouth's government he gave a general but independent support. That of Pitt he opposed, especially on the questions of the Catamaran expedition and the malversations of Lord Melville. This opposition was resented by depriving the elder Walter of the printing for the customs department, by the withdrawal of government advertisements from The Times, and also, it is said, by the systematic detention at the outports of the foreign intelligence addressed to its editor. John Walter the Second, however, was strong and resolute enough to brave the government. He organized a better system of news transmission than had ever before existed. He introduced steamprinting (1814) and repeatedly improved its mechanism (see PRINTING); and although modern machines may now seem to thrust into insignificance a press of which it was at first announced as a notable triumph that "no less than 1100 sheets are impressed in one hour," yet the assertion was none the less true that The Times of 29th November 1814 "presented to the public the practical result of the greatest improvement connected with printing since the discovery of the art itself." The effort to secure for The Times the best attainable literary talent in all departments kept at least an equal pace with those which were directed towards the improvement of its mechanical resources. And thus it came to pass that a circulation which did not, even in 1815, exceed on the average 5000 copies became, in 1834, 10,000; in 1840, 18,500; in 1844, 23,000; in 1851, 40,000; and in 1854, 51,648. In the year last named the average circulation of the other London dailies was-Morning Advertiser, 7644; Daily News, 4160; Morning Herald, 3712; Morning Chronicle, 2800; Morning Post, 2667; so that the supremacy of The Times can readily be understood. Sir John Stoddart, afterwards governor of Malta, edited The Times for several years prior to 1816. He was succeeded by Thomas Barnes, who for many years wrote largely in the paper. When his health began to fail the largest share of the editorial work came into the hands of Captain Edward Sterling-the contributor about a quarter of a century earlier of a noteworthy series of political letters signed "Vetus," the Paris correspondent of The Times in 1814 and subsequent eventful years, and afterwards for many years the most conspicuous among its leader-writers. From 1841 to 1877 the chief editor was John Thadeus Delane, who had his brother-in-law G. W. Dasent for assistant-editor, and another brother-in-law, Mowbray Morris, as business manager. By the time of the second John Walter's death (1847) the substantial monopoly of The Times in London journalism had been established; and under the proprietorship of the third John Walter the result of the labour of Delane as editor, and of the brilliant staff of contributors whom he directed, among whom Henry Reeve was conspicuous as regards foreign affairs, 1 See the centenary number of January 2, 1888; the pamphlet by S. V. Makower, issued by The Times in 1904. "The History of The Times"; and the article by Hugh Chisholm on The Times, 17851908" in the National Review (May 1908). 2 See Life of John Sterling, by Carlyle, who says of him at this time: "The emphatic, big-voiced, always influential and often strongly unreasonable Times newspaper was the express emblem of Edward Sterling. He, more than any other man, was The Times, and thundered through it, to the shaking of the spheres." The nickname of "The Thunderer," for The Times, came in vogue in his day. was to turn the "favourite broadsheet "of the English public into | the "leading journal of the world." When Delane retired, he was succeeded as editor by Thomas Chenery, and on his death in 1884 by George Earle Buckle (b. 1854). At the beginning of 1908 considerable changes took place in the proprietorial side of The Times, which was converted into a company, with Mr A. F. Walter (chief proprietor since 1891) as chairman and Mr C. Moberly Bell (b. 1847; manager since 1890) as managing director; the financial control passing into the hands of Lord Northcliffe. In the history of The Times its influence on the mechanical side of newspaper work was very great. The increasing circulation of The Times between the years 1840 and 1850 made an improvement in the printing-presses necessary, as sometimes the publication could not be completed before the afternoon. To meet this want the Applegath vertical press was introduced in 1848 and the American Hoe tenfeeder press in 1858. Meanwhile the idea of stereotyping from the movable types had been making steady progress. About the year 1856, however, a Swiss named Dellagana introduced to The Times Kroning's idea of casting from papier-mâché instead of plaster, and was allowed to experiment in The Times office. After a time the invention was so much improved that matrices of pages could be taken and the stereotype plates fixed bodily on the printing machine in place of the movable type. This cleared the way for the introduction of the famous Walter press. Hitherto only one set of "formes" could be used, as the type was set up once only-one side of the paper being worked on one machine and the sheets then taken to another machine to be " perfected." Stereotyping enabled the formes to be multiplied to any extent, as several plates could be cast from one matrix. Mr MacDonald, the manager of The Times, had devoted himself for several years to the production of a press which could print papers on both sides in one operation from a large reel of paper, the web of paper being cut into the required size after printirg, instead of each sheet being laid on " by a man and then printed. After years of experiment the Walter press was introduced into the Times machine-room in 1869, and the question of printing great nimbers in a short time was solved. Each press turned out 12,000 sheets per hour, and it was therefore only a question of multiplying the stereo plates and presses to obtain any number of printed papers by a certain time. Meanwhile Messrs Hoe had set about producing something even quicker and better than the Walter press. They succeeded in accomplishing this by multiplying the reels of paper on cach press, and also adding folders and stitchers. The result was the production of over 36,000 sheets per hour from each machine. These presses were adopted by The Times in 1895. In 1868 the question of composing machines for the quicker setting-up of type was taken up by The Times. A German named Kastenbein had an invention which he brought to the notice of The Times, and arrangements were made for him to continue his experiments in The Times office. In a couple of years a machine was made, which was worked and improved until in 1874 several machines were ready to set up a portion of the paper; but it was not until 1879 that the arrangements were sufficiently advanced to make certain that they could do all that was wanted from them. The introduction of composing machines, and the necessary alterations in the office arrangements which followed, led to some trouble among the compositors, which in 1880 culminated in a partial strike; but a part of the staff remaining loyal, the printer was able by extra effort to produce the paper at the proper time on the morning following the strike. Various improvements were made, until one machine was able to set up as many as 298 lines of The Times in one hour, equal to 16,688 separate types. A system of telephoning the parliamentary report from the House of Commons direct to the compositor was begun in 1885, and was continued until the House decided to rise at midnight, which enabled the more economical method of composing direct from the "copy to be resumed. Ever since the introduction of the composing machines the business had been much hampered by the question of "distribution "-that is, the breaking-up and sorting of the types after use. Kastenbein had invented a distributing machine to accompany his composing machine, but it proved to be unsatisfactory. Various systems were tried at The Times office, but for many years the work of the composing machines was to some extent crippled by the distribution difficulty. This had been recognized by Mr Frederick Wicks (d. 1910), the inventor of the Wicks Rotary Type-casting Machine, who for many years had been working at a machine which would cast new type so quickly and so cheaply as to do away with the old system of distribution and substitute new type every day. In 1899 his machine was practically perfect, and The Times entered into a contract with him to supply any quantity of new type every day. The difficult question of distribution was thus surmounted, and composition by machines placed on a satisfactory basis. Thus during the last half of the 19th century The Times continued to take the lead in new inventions relating to the printing of a newspaper, just as it had in the fifty years preceding. The three most important advances during the later period were practically worked out at The Times office-namely, fast-printing presses, stereotyping and machine composing, and without these it is safe to say that the cheap newspaper of the present day could not exist. Further indications of the enterprise of The Times in taking up journalistic novelties may also be seen in its organizing a wireless telegraphy service, with a special steamer, in the Far East, at the opening of the The first number of the paper contained 57 brief advertisements. but as it grew in repute and in size its advertising revenue became very large, and with the growth of this revenue came pari passu the means of spending more money on the contents. As far back as 1861 a single issue had contained 105 columns of advertisements, and another 98. Prior to 1884 the paper had only on two occasions consisted of 24 pages in a single issue. Between that year and 1902 more than 80 separate issues of this size were published, many of them containing over 80 columns of advertisements. Of two issues, one containing the news of the death and the other the account of the funeral of Queen Victoria, 140,000 copies were printed. From that time issues of 20 pages and over became an ordinary matter; and on May 24,1909 (Empire Day), The Times signalized the occasion by bringing out a huge supplement of 72 pages full of articles on Imperial topics. The Times has long stood in a class by itself among newspapers, owing to its abundance of trustworthy news, its high literary standard and its command of the ablest writers, who, however, are generally anonymous in its columns. It has always claimed to be a national rather than a party organ. It was Liberal in its politics in the Reform days, but became more and more Conservative and Imperialist when the Unionist and anti-Home Rule era set in. On the conversion of Mr Gladstone to Home Rule, The Times was, indeed, largely instrumental in forming the Liberal-Unionist party. In the course of its vigorous campaign against Irish Nationalism it published as part of its case a series of articles on "Parnellism and Crime,' including what were alleged to be facsimile reproductions of letters from Mr Parnell showing his complicity with the Phoenix Park murders. The history of this episode, and of the appointment of the Special Commission of investigation by the government, is told under PARNELL. One of the strongest features of The Times has been always its foreign correspondence. Among leading incidents in the history of The Times a few may be more particularly mentioned. In 1840 the Paris correspondent of the paper (Mr O'Reilly) obtained information respecting a gigantic scheme of forgery which had been planned in France, together with particulars of the examination at Antwerp of a minor agent in the conspiracy, who had been there, almost by chance, arrested. All that he could collect on the subject, including the names of the chief conspirators, was published by The Times on the 26th of May in that year, under the heading "Extraordinary and Extensive Forgery and Swindling Conspiracy on the Continent (Private Correspondence)." The project contemplated the almost simultaneous presentation at the chief banking-houses throughout the Continent of forged letters of credit, purporting to be those of Glyn & Company, to a very large amount; and its failure appears to have been in a great degree owing to the exertions made, and the responsibility assumed, by The Times. One of the persons implicated brought an action for libel against the paper, which was tried at Croydon in August 1841, with a verdict for the plaintiff, one farthing damages. A subscription towards defraying the heavy expenses (amounting to more than £5000) which The Times had incurred was speedily opened, but the proprietors declined to profit by it; and the sum which had been raised was devoted to the foundation of two" Times scholarships," in connexion with Christ's Hospital and the City of London School. Three years afterwards The Times rendered noble public service in a different direction. It used its vast power with vigour-at the expense of materially checking the growth of its own advertisement fund-by denouncing the fraudulent schemes which underlay the "railway mania of 1845. Parnell affair has already been mentioned. And more recently the "book war," arising out of the attack by the combined publishers on The Times Book Club in 1906, was prosecuted by The Times with great vigour, until in 1908 it came quietly to an end. The Various adjuncts to The Times, issued by its proprietors, have still to be mentioned. The Mail, published three times a week at the price of 2d. per number, gives a summary of two days' issue of The Times. The Times Weekly Edition (begun in 1877) is published every Friday at 2d., and gives an epitome of The Times for the six days. The Law Reports (begun in 1884) are conducted by a special staff of Times law reporters. Commercial Cases deals with cases of a commercial nature. Issues is a useful half-yearly.compilation of all the company announcements and demands for new capital, taken from the advertisement columns of The Times. In 1897 The Times started a weekly literary organ under the title of Literature. In 1901, however, a weekly literary supplement to The Times was issued instead, and Literature passed into the hands of the proprietor of the Academy, with which paper it was incorporated. The" Literary Supplement," which appears each Thursday (at first on Fridays), is printed in a different form, and separately paged. In 1904 a Financial and Commercial Supplement" (at first on Mondays, and later on Fridays) was added; in 1905 an “Engineering Supplement" (Wednesdays), and in 1910 a "Woman's Supplement." The publishing department of The Times also invaded several new fields of enterprise. The Times Atlas was first published in 1895, and this publication was supplemented by that of The Times (previously Longmans') Gazetteer. A much larger amd more important venture was the issue in 1898 of a reprint of the ninth edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica at less than half the original price, on a new system of terms (known as The Times system) that enabled the purchaser to receive the whole work at once and to pay for it by a series of equal monthly payments. This was followed by a similar sale of the Century Dictionary and of a reprint of the first fifty years of Punch; and cleven new volumes of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, supplementing the ninth edition, and forming with it the tenth edition, were issued by The Times in 1902 on similar terms (see ENCYCLOPAEDIA). In 1895 The Times, through its Vienna correspondent, purchased from Dr Moritz Busch the MS. and entire copyright of his journals, containing a very minute record of his intimate relations with Bismarck. It was stipulated in the contract that these were not to be published until after the death of the prince. That event occurred on the 30th July 1898, and on the 12th September of the same year The Times published through Messrs Macmillan (in 3 vols.) Bismarck: Some Secret Pages of his History, by Dr Moritz Busch. The Times History of the War in South Africa arose out of a desire to preserve in a more readable form the excellent work done by the numerous Times correspondents in South Africa. When originally projected in the early days of 1900 it was hoped that the war would be of short duration, and that the history of it could be rapidly completed. The length of the war naturally upset all these calculations, and eventually, the sixth and last volume was only issued in 1909. For a long period after the establishment of The Times, no effort to found a new daily London morning newspaper was ever conspicuously successful. Among unfruitful attempts were-(1) the New Times, started by Dr (afterwards Sir John) Stoddart, upon his departure from Printing-House Square; (2) the Representative (1824), established by John Murray, under circumstances which seemed at the outset exceptionally promising; (3) the Constitutional, begun in 1836 and carried on for eight months by a joint-stock company, exceptionally favoured in having for editor and subeditor Laman Blanchard and Thornton Hunt, with a staff of contributors which included Thackeray, Douglas Jerrold and Bulwer; (4) the Morning Star, founded in 1856, and kept afloat until 1870, when it was merged in the Daily News; (5) in 1867, the Day, for six weeks only; (6) in 1873 the Hour, for three years; (7) in 1878, the Daily Express, which soon failed. A measure of greater success followed the establishment (1794) of the Morning Advertiser, under special circumstances. It was the joint-stock venture of a large society of licensed victuallers, "Morn. amongst whom subscription to the paper was the condiIng Adtion of membership. For nearly sixty years its circulation vertiser." lay almost entirely in public-houses and coffee-houses, but amongst them it sold nearly 5000 copies daily, and it yielded a steady profit of about £6000 a year. Then, by the ability and enterprise of an experienced editor, James Grant (1802-1879), it was within four years raised to a circulation of nearly 8000, and to an aggregate profit of £12,000 a year. In 1891 its price was reduced from three pence to a penny. News." Cadbury became chief owner of the paper. Mr E. T. Cook, who had shown brilliant ability as a publicist, but whose views on the Boer War were not shared by the new proprietor, retired, subsequently joining the staff of the Daily Chronicle; the journal then became an organ of the anti-imperialist section of the Liberal party. Mr A. G. Gardiner became editor in 1902; and in 1904 considerable changes were made in the style of the paper, which was reduced in price to a halfpenny. The influence of Mr Cadbury, and of the group of Quaker families-largely associated with the manufacture of cocoa-who followed his example in promoting the publication of Liberal and Free Trade newspapers, led in later years to somewhat violent attacks from political opponents on the so-called "Cocoa Press," with the Daily News at its head. "Daily Tele graph." The first number of the Daily Telegraph was published on 29th June 1855, as a twopenny newspaper. Its proprietor was Colonel Sleigh. This gentleman soon found himself in pecuniary straits, and in satisfaction of the debt for the printing of the paper it was transferred to Mr Joseph Moses Levy in the following September. On 17th September Mr Levy published it as a four-paged penny journal, the first penny newspaper produced in London. His son, afterwards Sir Edward Lawson (b. 1833), who was created Baron Burnham in 1904, immediately entered the office, and after a short time became editor, a post which he only abandoned in 1885, when he became managing proprietor and sole director. From the outset Mr Levy gathered round him a staff of high literary skill and reputation. Among the first were Thornton Hunt, Geoffrey Prowse, George Hooper and Sir Edwin Arnold. E. L. Blanchard was among the earliest of the dramatic critics, and Alexander Harper the City editor. Later there came George Augustus Sala (g.v.), then one of Charles Dickens's young men; Clement Scott (1841-1904), at one time a clerk in the War Office; and Edward Dicey (b. 1832), then fresh from Cambridge. The Hon. Frank Lawley turned to journalism from official life; and among the most remarkable of the early contributors to the paper was . P. Benjamin, the great Anglo-American lawyer. H. D. Traill was a leader-writer for well-nigh a quarter of a century. J. M. Le Sage (b. 1837), for many years the managing editor, began his connexion with the paper under Mr Levy. Others prominently associated with the paper have been W. L. Courtney (b. 1850), a distinguished man of letters who, after several years of work as tutor at New College, Oxford, joined the staff in 1890, and in 1894 also became editor of the Fortnightly Review; E. B. Iwan-Müller (d. 1910) and J. L. Garvin (from 1899), afterwards (1904) editor of the Observer. After 1890 Mr H. W. L. Lawson, Lord Burnham's eldest son and heir, assisted his father in the general control of the paper. The Daily Telegraph may be said to have led the way in London journalism in capturing a large and important reading-public from the monopoly of The Times. It became the great organ of the middle classes, and was distinguished for its enterprise in many fields. In June 1873 the Telegraph despatched George Smith to carry out a series of archaeological researches in Nineveh, which resulted in the discovery of the missing fragments of the cuneiform account of the Deluge, and many other inscriptions. In co-operation with the New York Herald it equipped H. M. Stanley's second great expedition to Central Africa (1875-1877). Another geographical feat with which the name of the Daily Telegraph is associated was the exploration of Kilimanjaro (1884-1885) by Mr (afterwards Sir) Harry Johnston, whose account of his work appeared in the Daily Telegraph during 1885. And Mr Lionel Decle's march from the Cape to Cairo, in 1899 and 1900, was also undertaken under the auspices of the paper. The Telegraph raised many large funds for public purposes. Almost the first was the subscription for the relief of the sufferers by the cotton famine in Lancashire, in the winter of 1862-1863; the fund in aid of the starving and impoverished people of Paris at the close of the siege in 1871; the prince of Wales's Hospital Fund in commemoration of the Jubilee of 1897; and the Shilling Fund for the soldiers' widows and orphans in connexion with the Boer War. An undertaking of a more festive kind was the fête given to 30,000 London school children in Hyde Park on the occasion of Queen Victoria's Jubilee in 1887. In politics the Daily Telegraph was consistently Liberal up to 1878, when it opposed Mr Gladstone's foreign policy as explained in his Midlothian speeches. After 1886 it represented Unionist opinions. Among special feats of which it can boast was the first news brought to England of the conclusion of peace after the FrancoGerman War. The history of the Daily News, founded in 1846, has been told by Mr Justin McCarthy and Sir John R. Robinson in a volume of "political and social retrospect" published in 1896 on "Dally the occasion of its jubilee. It could boast of having continuously been the champion of Liberal ideas and principles of what (so long as Mr Gladstone lived) might be called official Liberalism at home and of liberty abroad. It became a penny paper in 1868. Its only rival in the history of Liberal journalism in London for many years was the Morning Star, which in 1870 it absorbed. Notably, it led British public opinion in foreign affairs as champion of the North in the American Civil War, of the cause of Italy, of the emancipation of Bulgaria from the Turk and of Armenia. Its early editors were Charles Dickens (21st JanuaryMarch 1846), John Forster (March-October 1846), E. E. Crowe (1847-1851), F. K. Hunt (1851-1854), W. Weir (1854-1858), T. Walker (1858-1869). In 1868 the price was reduced to a penny, and it came under the management of Mr (afterwards Sir) John R. Robinson (1828-1903), who only retired in 1901. Its later editors included (1868-1886) Mr F. H. Hill (the brilliant author of Political Portraits), and subsequently Sir John Robinson, as managing editor, in conjunction with Mr P. W. Clayden (1827-1902), the author of Life of Samuel Rogers, England under the Coalition and other able works, as political and literary editor, down to 1896, and Mr E.T. Cook from 1896 to 1901. Mr Cook, during the negotia-printing a 12-page paper at the rate of about 24,000 an hour, cut, tions with the Boer government in 1899, strongly supported Sir Alfred Milner; and under him the Daily News, as an exponent of Lord Rosebery's Liberal Imperialism, gave no countenance to the pro-Boer views of some of the more active members of the Liberal party. In 1901, however, the proprietary changed, and Mr George Prior to 1874 the Daily Telegraph was printed by eight- and tenfeeder machines, through which every sheet had to be passed twice to complete the impression. Under these conditions it was necessary to start printing one side of the paper as early as ten or eleven o'clock. The handicap which this imposed on the satisfactory production of a newspaper was removed by the introduction of Hoe's web machines at the end of 1874. No further change took place until 1891, when they were superseded by others built by the same makers capable of folded, delivered and counted in quires. In 1896 they were modified so as to be suitable for turning out an 8-, 10-, 12, 14- or 16-page paper. Up to 1894 the setting of type had been done entirely by hand, but in that year the linotype, after an experimental trial, was introduced on a large scale. NEWSPAPERS The Standard was established as an evening paper in the Tory | interest (as the express organ of the opponents of the measure for removing Roman Catholic disabilities) in 1827, its first Standard. editor being Stanley Lees Giffard, father of the first earl of Halsbury, who had Alaric Watts and Dr William Maginn, famous as one of the originators of Fraser's Magazine, as his chief helpers. In the course of two or three years it became a pecuniary, as it had from the first been a political, success, and gradually ousted the Courier, which was for a time conducted by William Mudford, whose son half a century later became the most distinguished editor of the Standard. In course of time the latter became the property of Mr Charles Baldwin, whose father was proprietor of the Morning Herald, and when the father died the son found himself in possession of both a morning and an evening journal. In his hands neither of them prospered, although the Standard retained a large circulation and constantly printed early and accurate political information. At length, midway in the 'fifties, both papers were purchased by Mr James Johnstone, Mr John Maxwell, the publisher, being for a time associated with him in the ownership. Mr Johnstone realized that he had before him a great opportunity, and at once set to work to grasp it. He brought out the Standard as a morning paper (29th June 1857), increased its size from four to eight pages, and reduced the price from fourpence to twopence. One of the most curious features of the early numbers was a novel by William Howard Russell. The evening edition was continued. In February 1858 Mr Johnstone again reduced the price, this time to a penny. When that step was taken the Standard announced that its politics were " enlightened amelioration and progress," but that it was "bound to no party "; and to those independent lines it in the main adhered. In the course of four or five years it became a financial success, and then began to attract to itself many brilliant pens, one of its contributors in the 'sixties, Lord Robert Cecil, being destined to become illustrious as marquess of Salisbury. Lord Robert was an occasional leader-writer, whose contributions were confined almost entirely to political subjects. It was at this time that the Standard laid the foundation of the great reputation for early and detailed foreign news which it has ever since enjoyed. During the American Civil War it obtained the services of a representative signing himself Manhattan," whose vivid and forcible letters from the battlefield arrested attention from the beginning. As the campaign progressed, these full, picturesque and accurate accounts of the most terrible struggle of modern times were looked for with eager interest. There were no " special cables" to discount the poignant curiosity of the reader, and the paper reached a circulation far beyond anything hitherto known. The distinction thus acquired was maintained during the Prussian-Austrian War of 1866, and greatly increased by the letters and telegrams describing the triumphs and disasters of the campaign of 1870. In the early 'sixties the staff had been reinforced by the engagement of Mr William Heseltine Mudford. In the midst of his work as a parliamentary reporter, he was sent as special correspondent to Jamaica in 1865 to report upon the troubles which involved the recall of Governor Eyre; a further period in the gallery of the House of Commons followed, and in 1873 Mr Mudford became business manager. Mr Johnstone's first editor was Captain Hamber, who afterwards seceded to the short-lived Hour, with whom had been associated Mr David Morier Evans as manager. He was succeeded by the owner's eldest son, to whom Mr (afterwards Sir) John Gorst was joined in a consultative capacity. In 1876 Mr Mudford became editor, still, however, retaining managerial control. Mr Johnstone, the proprietor to whose energy and perspicacity the paper owed so much, died in 1878, and under his will Mr Mudford was appointed editor and manager for life, or until resignation. Already a great property, the Standard in Mr Mudford's hands entered upon a very successful period. He had for his first assistant-editor Mr Gilbert Venables, who was succeeded after a short term by Mr George Byron Curtis, previously one of the leader-writers, who thus held the position through nearly the whole of Mr Mudford's long editorship. The staff at this time comprised many men, and some women, whose names are distinguished in letters as well as in journalism. Mr Alfred Austin, Mr T. H. S. Escott, Miss Frances Power Cobbe and Professor Palmer were all writing for the paper at the same time. To them must be added, among others, Mr E. D. J. Wilson, the brilliant political leader-writer (afterwards of The Times), Mr Percy Greg, son of "Cassandra" Greg, Mr T. E. Kebbel and Dr Robert Brown, who wrote copiously upon scientific and miscellaneous subjects. Foremost among the war correspondents were Mr G. A. Henty, who represented the paper on many a stricken field; Mr John A. Cameron, who was killed at Abu Klea; and Mr William Maxwell. In January 1900 Mr Mudford retired, and was succeeded in the editorship by Mr G. Byron Curtis (d. 1907), Mr S. H. Jeyes, whose connexion with the paper had begun in 1891, becoming assistant-editor. In November 1904 the Standard, which had at that time taken rather a strong line in deprecating the tariff reform movement within the Unionist party, was sold to Mr C. Arthur Pearson (proprietor of the Daily Express, see below), who was chairman of the Tariff Reform League, and considerable changes were made in the paper, Mr H. A. Gwynne becoming editor. In 1910 Mr Pearson, owing to ill-health, transferred his interests in the proprietary company he had formed in 1904 to Mr Davison Dalziel. (BRITISH FISH Daily Chronicle. Cleane The Daily Chronicle arose, as already mentioned, out of the local Clerkenwell News, the latter paper having been purchased by Mr morning paper" on independent Liberal lines. Under the editorship of Mr R. Whelan Boyle the Daily Chronicle Edward Lloyd in 1877, and converted into "an Imperial metropolitan affairs and the appearance of numerous small advertisesoon took rank among the other London daily journals, the only ments. The independent tone of the journal was conspicuous in its traces of its original character being shown in the attention paid to treatment of the Home Rule question. At first deprecating the system of combined agitation and outrage with which the term was synonymous, the Daily Chronicle, under the editorship of Mr A. E. Mr Gladstone's Bill of 1893. Another instance was afforded in the course of the Boer War. During the negotiations and the early Fletcher (1890-1895), ceased to be a Unionist journal, and supported stages of the campaign, the Daily Chronicle, which was then edited by Mr H. W. Massingham (b. 1860), strove for peace by supporting the Boer side against the diplomacy of Mr Chamberlain. Mr Massingham's policy was, however, not to the liking of the proprietors, and he retired from the editorship towards the end of Donald became editor, and the price was reduced to a halfpenny. Mr Massingham during his editorship, ably seconded by Mr (after1899, Mr W. J. Fisher succeeding him as editor. In 1904 Mr Robert wards Sir) Henry Norman (b. 1858), had largely increased the interest of the paper, particularly on its literary side. A new impetus had been given in this direction in 1891, when a "literary page started, conducted at first by Mr J. A. Manson, and after 1892 by Mr Massingham, when he became assistant-editor under Mr Fletcher. The Chronicle had taken a leading part in many public movements since 1877. It was conspicuous in its advocacy of the cause of the men in the London dock strike of 1889; and in the great mining dispute for a living wage," which was brought to a close by Lord Rosebery in November 1893, raised over £13,000 for the relief committees. Much attention was given to the theosophical discussion of 1891 and to the exposure of the adventurer De Rougemont after he had appeared before the British Association at Bristol in 1898. The Chronicle took an active part in the negotiations which led to the Venezuelan Arbitration Treaty of 1897; it energetically pleaded the cause of the Armenians and Cretans during the massacres of 1896, and it encouraged the Greeks in the war with Turkey in 1897. Its foreign policy was, however, more distinguished by goodwill than by discretion-and notably in the latter instance. The Chronicle also worked strenuously for the Progressive cause in London in regard to the County Council, Borough Councils and the School Board. Its new successes included the first announcement of the revolution in eastern Rumelia (1885); the first circumstantial account of the death of Prince Rudolph (1889); Nansen's own narrative of his expedition towards the North Pole; Sir Martin Conway's journey across Spitzbergen in 1896; and the first ascent of Aconcagua in 1897. success of a business organization, in which individual views on affairs | it into a Liberal journal. Mr Greenwood then retired from the played a comparatively minor part. The halfpenny Daily Express, founded by Mr Cyril Arthur Pearson (b. 1866) on the lines of the Daily Mail, first appeared in 1900, and soon won a large clientèle. With R. D. Blumenfeld as Daily Express. editor (from 1904) it worked strenuously for Tariff Reform. The Daily Mirror, started by Mr Harmsworth as a women's penny daily in 1904, failed to attract in its original form and was quickly changed into a halfpenny general daily, relying as a novelty on the presentation of news by photographic pictures of current events. This new feature soon obtained for it a large circulation under the enterprising management of Mr Kennedy Jones (b. 1865), who was already known for his successful conduct of the Evening News and his share in the business of the Daily Mail. Daily Globe. Mr editorship and shortly afterwards started the St James's Gazette; The Globe (founded Jan. Ist., 1803), the oldest of existing London evening papers, owed its origin to the desire of the booksellers or publishers of the day for an advertising medium, at a moment when the Morning Post gave them the cold shoulder. A syndicate of publishers started a morning paper, the British Press (which had only a short career), to combat the Post, and the Globe as a rival to the Courier (see above), which, like the Post, was under Daniel Stuart's control. George Lane, previously Stuart's chief assistant, was the editor. From 1815 a prominent member of the staff was Mr (afterwards vice-chancellor Sir James) Bacon. After swallowing up some other journals, in 1823 it absorbed the property and title of the Traveller, controlled by Colonel Torrens, who in the reorganization became principal proprietor and brought over Walter Coulson as the editor. John Wilson succeeded as editor in 1834, efficiently seconded by Mr Moran; Thomas Love Peacock and R. H. Barham ("Ingoldsby") being famous contributors during his regime. For some time the Globe was the principal Whig organ, and Mr (afterwards Deputy Judge Advocate Sir James) O'Dowd its political inspirer. Mahony ("Father Prout ") was its Paris correspondent. In 1842 the Courier was incorporated, but a gradual decline in the fortunes of the paper, and Colonel Torrens's death in 1864, brought about a reorganization in 1866, when a small Conservative syndicate, including Sir Stafford Northcote, bought it and converted the Globe into a Conservative organ. In 1868 the pink colour since associated with the paper was started. In 1869 its price (originally sixpence) was lowered to a penny. Mr W. T. Madge (b. 1845), whose vigorous management was afterwards so valuable, and who in 1881 started with Captain Armstrong the People, a popular Sunday journal for the masses, joined the paper in 1866; and after brief periods of editorship by Messrs Westcomb, R. H. Patterson, H. N. Barnett and Marwood Tucker (1868), in 1871 Captain George C. H. Armstrong (1836-1907), who in 1892 was created a baronet, 'was put in control; he edited the paper for some years, and then it became his property. The editorial chair was filled in succession by Mr Ponsonby Ogle, Mr Algernon Locker (1891), and the proprietor's son and heir Lieut. G. E. Armstrong, R.N. (1895), until in June 1907, after Sir G. Armstrong's death, the naper was sold to Mr Hildebrand Harmsworth. The Globe "Turnovers (miscellaneous articles, turning over from the first to the Founded in 1880 by Mr H. Hucks Gibbs (afterwards Lord Aldensecond page) began in 1871, and became famous for variety and ham), for Mr Frederick Greenwood to edit when he had left the humour. The jocular" By the Way "column, another characteristic Pall Mall, the St James's Gazette represented the more feature, was started in 1881, and owed much to Mr Kay Robinson intellectual and literary side of Tory journalism in opand Mr C. L. Graves. In the history of the Globe one of the best-position to the new Liberalism of Mr Greenwood's former known incidents is its publication of the Salisbury-Schuvaloff treaty of 1878. It was the first London daily to use the linotype composing-machine (1892). A new period of evening journalism, characteristic of the later 19th century, opened with the founding of the Pall Mall Gazette. The first number (at twopence) was issued on 7th February Pall Mall 1865 from Salisbury Street, Strand. Mr George Smith, Gazette. of the publishing firm of Smith and Elder, was its first proprietor; Mr Frederick Greenwood (q.v.), its first editor, took the Anti-Jacobin for his model; the paper was intended to realize Thackeray's picture (in Pendennis) of one "written by gentlemen for gentlemen." Its political attitude was to be independent, and much space was to be given to literature and non-political matter. It had brilliant supporters, such as Sir J. Fitzjames Stephen as writer of leading articles (replaced to a certain extent, after 1869, by Sir Henry Maine), R. H. Hutton, Matthew James Higgins ("Jacob Omnium"), James Hannay, and George Henry Lewes, with George Eliot, Anthony Trollope, Charles Reade, and Thomas Hughes as occasional contributors; but the paper failed to attract the general public until, in the following year, Mr Greenwood's brother, James, furnished it with three articles on "A Night in a Workhouse: by an Amateur Casual." A morning edition had already been tried and dropped, and so was a distinct morning paper attempted in 1870. In 1867 new premises were taken in Northumberland Street, Strand. Three years later the Pall Mall Gazette was the first to announce the surrender of Napoleon III. at Sedan. Matthew Arnold contributed his famous" Arminius "letters ("Friendship's Garland ") in 1871, and Richard Jefferies contributed "The Gamekeeper at Home" in 1876 and onwards. Mr Greenwood made the paper unflinchingly Conservative and strongly adherent to Lord Beaconsfield's foreign policy. In 1880, however, Mr Smith handed over the Pall Mall Gazelle to his son-in-law, Mr Henry Yates Thompson, who turned XLX 10 The St James's Gazette. organ; it was in fact meant to carry on the idea of the 2a |
