of the maiden, i.e. Athena); Jebb (on Bacchylides, fr. xi. 2) | in any way akin to the former in nature or character, but as suggests a derivation from leva, the goddess of the

46

onset."

At Thebes she was worshipped as Athena Onka or Onga, of equally uncertain derivation (possibly from ŏykos, "a height "). Peculiar to Arcadia is the title Athena Alea, probably="warder off of evil," although others explain it as="warmth," and see in it an allusion to her physical nature as one of the powers of light. Farnell (Cults, p. 275) points out that at the same time she is certainly looked upon as in some way connected with the health-divinities, since in her temple she is grouped with Asclepius and Hygieia (see HYGIEIA).

indicating the contest between an old and a new religion. This god, whose worship was introduced into Athens at a later date by the Ionian immigrants, was identified with ErechtheusErichthonius (for whose birth Athena was in a certain sense responsible), and thus was brought into connexion with the goddess, in order to effect a reconciliation of the two cults. Athena was said to have invented the plough, and to have taught men to tame horses and yoke oxen. Various arts were attributed to her-shipbuilding, the goldsmith's craft, fulling, shoemaking and other branches of industry. As early as Homer She already appears as the goddess of counsel (roλúẞovλos) she takes especial interest in the occupations of women; she in the Iliad and in Hesiod. The Attic bouleutae took the oath makes Hera's robe and her own peplus, and spinning and weaving by Athena Boulaia; at Sparta she was ayopaía, presiding over are often called" the works of Athena." The custom of offering the popular assemblies in the market-place; in Arcadia unxavîris, a beautifully woven peplus at the Panathenaic festival is conthe discoverer of devices. The epithet #povola (" forethought")nected with her character as Ergane the goddess of industry. is due, according to Farnell, to a confusion with povaía, referring As patroness of the arts, she is associated with Hephaestus (one to a statue of the goddess standing " before a shrine," and arose of her titles is 'Hparía) and Prometheus, and in Boeotia she was later (probably spreading from Delphi), some time after the regarded as the inventress of the flute. According to Pindar, Persian wars, in which she repelled a Persian attack on the she imitated on the flute the dismal wail of the two surviving temples "by divine forethought "; another legend attributes Gorgons after the death of Medusa. The legend that Athena, the name to her skill in assisting Leto at the birth of Apollo and observing in the water the distortion of her features caused by Artemis. With this aspect of her character may be compared playing that instrument, flung it away, probably indicates that the Hesiodic legend, according to which she was the daughter the Boeotians whom the Athenians regarded with contempt, of Metis. Her connexion with the trial of Orestes, the introduc- used the flute in their worship of the Boeotian Athena. The tion of a milder form of punishment for justifiable homicide, story of the slaying of Medusa by Athena, in which there is no and the institution of the court rò ènì Пaλλadiw, show the certain evidence that she played a direct part, explained by important part played by her in the development of legal ideas. Roscher as the scattering of the storm-cloud, probably arose The protectress of cities was naturally also a goddess of war. from the fact that she is represented as wearing the Gorgon's As such she appears in Homer and Hesiod and in post-Homeric head as a badge. legend as the slayer of the Gorgon and taking part in the battle of the giants. On numerous monuments she is represented as ȧpeia, "the warlike," vinópos, "bringer of victory," holding an image of Nike (q.v.) in her outstretched hand (for other similar epithets see Roscher's Lexikon). She was also the goddess of the arts of war in general; oroxeia, she who draws up the ranks for battle, wornpia, she who girds herself for the fray. Martial music (cp. 'Abývŋ σáλrty, "trumpet ") and the Pyrrhic dance, in which she herself is said to have taken part to com- Except at Athens, little is known of the ceremonies or festivals memorate the victory over the giants, and the building of which attended her worship. There we have the following. war-ships were attributed to her. She instructed certain of (1) The ceremony of the Three Sacred Ploughs, by which the her favourites in gymnastics and athletics, as a useful training signal for seed-time was given, apparently dating from a period for war. The epithets ίππία, χαλινῖτις, δαμάσιππος, usually when agriculture was one of the chief occupations of her referred to her as goddess of war-horses, may perhaps be reminis-worshippers. (2) The Procharisteria at the end of winter, at cences of an older religion in which the horse was sacred to her. As a war-goddess, she is the embodiment of prudent and intelligent tactics, entirely different from Ares, the personification of brute force and rashness, who is fitly represented as suffering defeat at her hands. She is the patroness and protectress of those heroes who are distinguished for their prudence and caution, and in the Trojan War she sides with the more civilized Greeks.

The goddess of war develops into the goddess of peace and the pursuits connected with it. She is prominent as the promoter of agriculture in Attic legend. The Athenian hero Erechtheus (Erichthonius), originally an earth-god, is her foster-son, with whom she was honoured in the Erechtheum on the Acropolis. Her oldest priestesses, the dew-sisters-Aglauros, Herse, Pandrosos-signify the fertilization of the earth by the dew, and were probably at one time identified with Athena, as surnames of whom both Aglauros and Pandrosos are found. The story of the voluntary sacrifice of the Attic maiden Aglauros on behalf of her country in time of war (commemorated by the ephebi taking the oath of loyalty to their country in her temple), and of the leap of the three sisters over the Acropolis rock (see ERECHTHEUS), probably points to an old human sacrifice. Athena also gave the Athenians the olive-tree, which was supposed to have sprung from the bare soil of the Acropolis, when smitten by her spear, close to the horse (or spring of water) produced by the trident of Poseidon, to which he appealed in support of his claim to the lordship of Athens. She is also connected with Poseidon in the legend of Erechtheus, not as being

As in the case of Aphrodite and Apollo, Roscher in his Lexikon deduces all the characteristics of Athena from a single conception that of the goddess of the storm or the thunder-cloud (for a discussion of such attempts see Farnell, Cults, i. pp. 3, 263). There seems little reason for regarding her as a nature-goddess at all, but rather as the presiding divinity of states and cities, of the arts and industries-in short, as the goddess of the whole intellectual side of human life.

which thanks were offered for the germination of the seed. (3) The Scirophoria, with a procession from the Acropolis to the village of Skiron, in the height of summer, the priests who were to entreat her to keep off the summer heat walking under the shade of parasols (σkipov) held over them, others, however, connect the name with oxipos (" gypsum "), perhaps used for smearing the image of the goddess. (4) The Oschophoria, at the vintage season, with races among boys, and a procession, with songs in praise of Dionysus and Ariadne. (5) The Chalkeia (feast of smiths), at which the birth of Erechtheus and the invention of the plough were celebrated. (6) The Plynteria and Callynteria, at which her ancient image and peplus in the Erechtheum and the temple itself were cleaned, with a procession in which bunches of figs (frequently used in lustrations) were carried. (7) The Arrhephoria or Errephoria (perhaps = Ersephoria, "dew-bearing "), at which four girls, between seven and eleven years of age, selected from noble families, carried certain unknown sacred objects to and from the temple of Aphrodite "in the gardens" (see J E. Harrison, Classical Review, April 1889). (8) The Panathenaca, at which the new robes for the image of the goddess were carried through the city, spread like a sail on a mast. The reliefs of the frieze of the cella of the Parthenon enable us to form an idea of the procession. Athletic games, open to all who traced their nationality to Athens, were part of this festival. Mention should also be made of the Argive According to J. E. Harrison in Classical Review (June 1894). Athena Ergane is the goddess of the fruits of the field and the procreation of children.

1

ceremony, at which the xoanon (ancient wooden statue) of Athena | of the 3rd century A.D. Suidas only tells us that he lived" in the was washed in the river Inachus, a symbol of her purification after the Gigantomachia.

acquainted with the classical writers. He used the Apology | the time of Richard II. to the Union; but it never recovered of Justin, but hardly the works of Aristides or Tatian. His from the wars of the Tudor period, culminating in a successful theology is strongly tinged with Platonism, and this may account siege by Red Hugh O'Donnell in 1596. for his falling into desuetude. His discussion of the Trinity has some points of speculative interest, but it is not sufficiently worked out; he regards the Son as the Reason or Wisdom of the Father, and the Spirit as a divine effluence. On some other points, as the nature of matter, the immortality of the soul and the principle of sin, his views are interesting.

EDITIONS.-J. C. Th. Eg. de Otto, Corpus Apol. Christ. Saec. II. vol. vii. (Jena, 1857); E. Schwartz in Texte und Untersuchungen, iv. 2 (Leipzig, 1891). TRANSLATIONS.-Humphreys (London, 1714); B. P. Pratten (Ante-Nic. Fathers, Edinburgh, 1867).

LITERATURE.-A. Harnack, Gesch. der altchr. Litt. pp. 526-558, and similar works by O. Bardenhewer and A. Ehrhard; Herzog-Hauck, Realencyk.; G. Krüger, Early Chr. Lit. p. 130 (where additional literature is cited). In 1559 and 1612 appeared in French a work on True and Perfect Love, purporting to be a translation from the Greek of Athenagoras; it is a palpable forgery.

ATHENODORUS, the name of two Stoic philosophers of the 1st century B.C., who have frequently been confounded.

ATHENS ['Ava, Athenae, modern colloquial Greek 'A0ýva], the capital of the kingdom of Greece, situated in 23° 44′ E. and 37° 58′ N., towards the southern end of the central and principal plain of Attica. The various theories with regard to the origin of the name are all somewhat unconvincing; it is conceivable that, with the other homonymous Greek towns, such as Athenae Diades in Euboea, 'A0ñvat may be connected etymologically with aros, a flower (cf. Firenze, Florence), the patron goddess. Athena, was probably called after the place I. TOPOGRAPHY AND ANTIQUITIES

of her cult.

The Attic plain, rò medíov, slopes gently towards the coast of the Saronic Gulf on the south-west, on the east it is overlooked by Mount Hymettus (3369 ft.), on the north-cast by Pentelicus or Brilessus (3635 ft.) from which, in ancient and modern times, an immense quantity of the finest marble has been quarried; I. ATHENODORUS CANANITES (c. 74 B.C.-A.D. 7), so called on the north-west by Parnes (4636 ft), a continuation of the from his birthplace Canana near Tarsus (not Cana in Cilicia nor Bocotian Cithacron, and on the west by Aegaleus (1532 ft.), Canna in Lycaonia), was the son of one Sandon, whose name which descends abruptly to the bay of Salamis. In the centre indicates Tarsian descent, not Jewish as many have held. He of the plain extends from north-east to south-west a series of was a personal friend of Strabo, from whom we derive our know-low heights, now known as Turcovuni, culminating towards the ledge of his life. He taught the young Octavian (afterwards south in the sharply pointed Lycabettus (1112 ft.), now called Augustus) at Apollonia, and was a pupil of Posidonius at Rhodes. Hagios Georgios from the monastery which crowns its summit. Subsequently he appears to have travelled in the East (Petra and Lycabettus, the most prominent feature in the Athenian landEgypt) and to have made himself famous by lecturing in the scape, directly overhung the ancient city, but was not included great cities of the Mediterranean. Writing in 50 B.C., Cicero in its walls; its peculiar shape rendered it unsuitable for fortifica speaks of him with the highest respect (cf. Ep. ad. Att., xvi. tion. The Turcovuni ridge, probably the ancient Anchesmus, II. 4, 14. 4), a fact which enables us to fix the date of his birth separates the valley of the Cephisus on the north-west from as not later than about 74. His influence over Augustus was that of its confluent, the Ilissus, which skirted the ancient city strong and lasting. He followed him to Rome in 44, and is said to on the south-west. The Cephisus, rising in Pentelicus, enters have criticized him with the utmost candour, bidding him repeat the sea at New Phalerum; in summer it dwindles to an inthe letters of the alphabet before acting on an angry impulse. significant stream, while the Ilissus, descending from Hymettus, In later years he was allowed by Augustus to return to Tarsus is totally dry, probably owing to the destruction of the ancient in order to remodel the constitution of the city after the forests on both mountains, and the consequent denudation of degenerate democracy which had misgoverned it under Boethus. the soil. Separated from Lycabettus by a depression to the He succeeded (c. 15-10 B.C.) in setting up a timocratic oligarchy south-west, through which flows a brook, now a covered drain in the imperial interest (see TARSUS). Sir W. M. Ramsay is (probably to be identified with the Eridanus), stands the reinclined to attribute to the influence of Athenodorus the striking markable oblong rocky mass of the Acropolis (512 ft.), rising resemblances which can be established between Seneca and Paul, precipitously on all sides except the western; its summit was the latter of whom must certainly have been acquainted with his partially levelled in prehistoric times, and the flat area was teachings. According to Eusebius and Strabo he was a learned subsequently enlarged by further cutting and by means of rescientist for his day, and some attribute to him a history of taining walls. Close to the Acropolis on the west is the lower Tarsus. He helped Cicero in the composition of the De Officiis. rocky eminence of the Areopagus, "Aрews wάyos (377 ft.), the seat His works are not certainly known, and none are extant. (See of the famous council; the name (see also AREOPAGUS) has been Sir W. M. Ramsay in the Expositor, September 1906, pp. 268 ff.) connected with Ares, whose temple stood on the northern side 2. ATHENODORUS CORDYLION, also of Tarsus, was keeper of of the hill, but is more probably derived from the 'Apai or the library at Pergamum, and was an old man in 47 B.C. In his Eumenides, whose sanctuary was formed by a cleft in its northenthusiasm for Stoicism he used to cut out from Stoic writings eastern declivity. Farther west of the Acropolis are three elevapassages which seemed to him unsatisfactory. He also settled tions; to the north-west the so-called "Hill of the Nymphs in Rome, where he died in the house of the younger Cato. (341 ft.), on which the modern Observatory stands; to the west Among others of the name may be mentioned (3) ATHENODORUS the Pnyx, the meeting-place of the Athenian democracy (351 ft.), OF TEOS, who played the cithara at the wedding of Alexander the and to the south-west the loftier Museum Hill (482 ft.), still Great and Statira at Susa (324 B.C.); (4) a Greek physician of the crowned with the remains of the monument of Philópappus. 1st century A.D., who wrote on epidemic diseases; and two sculptors. A cavity, a little to the west of the Observatory Hill, is generally of whom (5) one executed the statues of Apollo and Zeus which the Spartans dedicated at Delphi after Aegospotami; and (6) the other supposed to be the ancient Barathron or place of execution. was a son of Alexander of Rhodes, whom he helped in the Laocoon To the south-east of the Acropolis, beyond the narrow valley of the Ilissus, is the hill Ardettus (436 ft.). The distance from the Acropolis to the nearest point of the sea coast at Phalerum is a little over 3 m.

group.

ATHENRY, a market town of county Galway, Ireland, 14 m. inland (E.) from Galway on the Midland Great Western main line. Pop. (1901) 853. Its name is derived from Ath-na-riogh, the ford of kings; and it grew to importance after the AngloNorman invasion as the first town of the Burgs and Berminghams. The walls were erected in 1211 and the castle in 1238, and the remains of both are noteworthy. A Dominican monastery was founded with great magnificence by Myler de Bermingham in 1241, and was repaired by the Board of Works in 1893. Of the Franciscan monastery of 1464 little is left. The town returned two members to the Irish parliament from

north-east by an open tract stretching between Hymettus and Pentelicus towards Marathon, and was traversed by the passes of Decclea, Phylé and Daphné on the north and north-west, but the distance between these natural passages and the city was sufficient to obviate the danger of surprise by an invading land force. On the other hand Athens, like Corinth, Megara and Argos, was sufficiently far from the sea to enjoy security against the sudden descent of a hostile fleet. At the same time the relative proximity of three natural harbours, Peiraeus, Zea and Munychia, favoured the development of maritime commerce and of the sea power which formed the basis of Athenian hegemony. The climate is temperate, but liable to sudden changes; the mean temperature is 63°1 F., the maximum (in July) 99°.01, the minimum (in January) 31°.55. The summer heat is moderated by the sea-breeze or by cool northerly winds from the mountains (especially in July and August). The clear, bracing air, according to ancient writers, fostered the intellectual and aesthetic character of the people and endowed them with mental and physical energy. For the architectural embellishment of the city the finest building material was procurable without difficulty and in abundance; Pentelicus forms a mass of white, transparent, blue-veined marble; another variety, somewhat similar in appearance, but generally of a bluer hue, was obtained from Hymettus. For ordinary purposes grey limestone was furnished by Lycabettus and the adjoining hills; limestone from the promontory of Acté (the co-called " poros" stone), and conglomerate, were also largely employed. For the ceramic art admirable material was at hand in the district north-west of the Acropolis. For sculpture and various architectural purposes white, fine-grained marble was brought from Paros and Naxos. The main drawback to the situation of the city lay in the insufficiency of its water-supply, which was supplemented by an aqueduct constructed in the time of the Peisistratids and by later water-courses dating from the Roman period. A great number of wells were also sunk and rain-water was stored in

cisterns.

and wrote a description of a portion of the city. Of the work of Cyriac of Ancona, written about 1450, only some fragments remain, which are well supplemented by the contemporaneous description of the capable observer known as the " Anonymus of Milan." Two treatises in Greek by unknown writers belong to the same period. The Dutchman Joannes Meursius (1579-1639) wrote three disquisitions on Athenian topography. The conquest by Venice in 1687 led to the publication of several works in that city, including the descriptions of De la Rue and Fanelli and the maps of Coronelli and others. The systematic study of Athenian topography was begun in the 17th century by French residents at Athens, the consuls Giraud and Chataignier and the Capuchin monks. The visit of the French physician Jacques Spon and the Englishman, Sir George Wheler or Wheeler (1650-1723), fortunately took place before the catastrophe of the Parthenon in 1687; Spon's Voyage d'Italie, de Dalmatie, de Grèce et du Levant, which contained the first scientific description of the ruins of Athens, appeared in 1678; Wheler's Journey into Greece, in 1682. A period of British activity in research followed in the 18th century. The monumental work of James Stuart and Nicholas Revett, who spent three years at Athens (17511754), marked an epoch in the progress of Athenian topography and is still indispensable to its study, owing to the demolition of ancient buildings which began about the middle of the 18th century. To this period also belong the labours of Richard Pococke and Richard Dalton, Richard Chandler, E. D. Clarke and Edward Dodwell. The great work of W. M. Leake (Topography of Athens and the Demi, 2nd ed., 1841) brought the descriptive literature to an end and inaugurated the period of modern scientific research, in which German archaeologists have played a distinguished part.

Recent research.

The

Recent investigation has thrown a new and unexpected light on the art, the monuments and the topography of the ancient city. Numerous and costly excavations have been carried out by the Greek government and by native and foreign scientific societies, while accidental discoveries have been frequently made during the building of the modern town. scriptions, have been carefully and scientifically arranged, and museums, enriched by a constant inflow of works of art and inafford opportunities for systematic study denied to scholars of the past generation. Improved means of communication have enabled many acute observers to apply the test of scrutiny on the spot to theories and conclusions mainly based on literary evidence; five foreign schools of archaeology, directed by eminent scholars,' lend valuable aid to students of all nationalities, and lectures are frequently delivered in the museums and on the more interesting and important sites. The native archaeologists of the present day hold For the purposes of scientific topography observation of the a recognized position in the scientific world; the patriotic sentiment natural features and outlines is followed by exact investigation of of former times, which prompted their zeal but occasionally warped the architectural structures or remnants, a process demanding their judgment, has been merged in devotion to science for its own high technical competence, acute judgment and practical ex- sake, and the supervision of excavations, as well as the control of perience, as well as wide and accurate scholarship. The building the art-collections, is now in highly competent hands. Athens has material and the manner of its employment furnish evidence no thus become a centre of learning, a meeting-place for scholars and less important than the character of the masonry, the design and a basis for research in every part of the Greek world. The attention the modes of ornamentation. The testimony afforded of many students has naturally been concentrated on the ancient Sources for by inscriptions is often of decisive importance, especially city, the birthplace of European art and literature, and a great that of commemorative or votive tablets or of boundary-development of investigation and discussion in the special domain Athenian stones found in situ; the value of this evidence is, on of Athenian archaeology has given birth to a voluminous literature. topothe other hand, sometimes neutralized owing to the former Many theories hitherto universally accepted have been called in graphy. removal of building material already used and its in- question or proved to be unsound: the views of Leake, for instance, corporation in later structures. Thus sepulchral inscriptions have have been challenged on various points, though many of his conbeen found on the Acropolis, though no burials took place there clusions have been justified and confirmed. The supreme importance in ancient times. In the next place comes the evidence derived of a study of Greek antiquities on the spot, long understood by from the whole range of ancient literature and specially from de- scholars in Europe and in America, has gradually come to be recog scriptions of the city or its different localities. The earliest known nized in England, where a close attention to ancient texts, not always description of Athens was that of Diodorus, & Tepinyths, who lived adequately supplemented by a course of local study and observation, in the second half of the 4th century B.C. Among his successors were formerly fostered a peculiarly conservative attitude in regard to the Polemon of Ilium (beginning of 2nd century B.C.),whose great xooμLKÝ problems of Greek archaeology. Since the foundation of the German epinynoisgave a minute account of the votive offerings on the Acropolis Institute in 1874, Athenian topography has to a large extent become and the tombs on the Sacred Way; and Heliodorus (second half of a speciality of German scholars, among whom Wilhelm Dörpfeld the 2nd century) who wrote fifteen volumes on the monuments of occupies a pre-eminent position owing to his great architectural Athens. Of these and other works of the earliest topographers only attainments and unrivalled local knowledge. Many of his bold and some fragments remain. In the period between A.D. 143 and 159 novel theories have provoked strenuous opposition, while others Pausanias visited Athens at a time when the monuments of the great have met with general acceptance, except among scholars of the age were still in their perfection and the principal embellishments more conservative type." of the Roman period had already been completed. The first thirty chapters of his invaluable Description of Greece(περιήγησις τῆς Ἑλλάδος) Prehistoric Athens.-Numerous traces of the "Mycenaean are devoted to Athens, its ports and environs. Pausanias makes epoch have recently been brought to light in Athens and its no claim to exhaustiveness; he selected what was best worth neighbourhood. Among the monuments of this age noticing (rà &ioλoyúrara). His account, drawn up from notes taken in the main from personal observation, possesses an especial discovered in the surrounding districts are the rockimportance for topographical research, owing to his method of hewn tombs of Spata, accidentally revealed by a describing each object in the order in which he saw it during the landslip in 1877, and the domed sepulchre at Menidi, near course of his walks. His accuracy, which has been called in question the ancient Acharnae, excavated by Lolling in 1879. Other by some scholars, has been remarkably vindicated by recent excavations at Athens and elsewhere. The list of ancient topographers Mycenaean landmarks have been laid bare at Eleusis, closes with Pausanias. The literature of succeeding centuries fur-Thoricus, Halae and Aphidna. These structures, however, are nishes only isolated references; the more important are found in of comparatively minor importance in point of dimensions and the scholia on Aristophanes, the lexicons of Hesychius, Photius decoration; they were apparently designed as places of sepulture and others, and the Etymologicum Magnum. The notices of Athens during the earlier middle ages are scanty in the extreme. In 1395 for local chieftains, whose domains were afterwards incorporated Niccolo da Martoni, a pilgrim from the Holy Land, visited Athens in the Athenian realm by the ovvokioμós (synoecism) attributed

The early citadel.