solved in it, and the molasses remaining is mixed with that in the jars to be distilled. The weight of molasses obtained by these various operations is nearly equal to that of the brown sugar. Supposing that I wish to produce the fermentation of 445 lbs. of molasses, to prepare it for distillation; I proceed in the following manner: I throw the whole quantity of molasses into a vat, and there add to it such a quantity of water as shall cause the liquor to mark 7° or 8° (= 1.052 to 1.060) of concentration. I stir the mixture with the greatest care, so as to unite the two fluids thoroughly. The vat is situated in an apartment of the manufactory, where the temperature is, by means of a stove, kept constantly at 20° or 22° (probably of Réaumur; = 77° and 881° Fahr.), and I take care that the liquor be raised to 15° or 16° (= specific gravity of 1.116 to 1.125) before the yeast is added to it. To make the leaven, which must be prepared on the moining of the day in which it is to be used, I form 25 lbs. of rye meal into a paste with molasses, and then dilute the paste with boiling water, to which I gradually add one quart of pure molasses, kneading the mass thoroughly till it is of the consistency of porridge: the heat of it in this state should be 20° or 25° (= 77° to 88° Fahr). When this leaven is formed for a first operation, a little beer yeast or leaven of wheat flour should be added to it. The bucket is covered over, and set into a place sufficiently warm to produce fermentation: the yeast soon begins to swell, and rises seven or eight inches in the bucket; at the end of twelve or fourteen hours it is ready for use. The yeast is thrown by small portions at a time into the vat, the liquor in which is stirred during the whole time. Fermentation commences in the course of two or three hours, and continues two or three days. The concentration of the liquid is gradually diminished, and at the end of the operation falls to 2° (= specific gravity of 1.014). The next process is that of distillation: the liquor is poured into the boiler of the alembic through a cloth strainer, by which all the meal and bran contained in it are separated; without this precaution, the liquor would often ascend during distillation into the worm. When distillation is carried on in the improved alembics, the first alcohol which passes marks 36° (= 0.847) of the hydrometer; it becomes gradually weaker till it stands at only 10° or 12o (= specific gravity of 1.000 to 0.987); the operation is then arrested. The mixture of the products forms spirit marking from 22° to 25° (specific gravity of 0 932 to 0.906). The after-taste of this spirit is so bitter as to diminish its value in commerce: I have been able to correct this fault by mixing about 24 lbs. of animal charcoal with the liquor of each boiling; this is 90 gallons: the spirit obtained by this process differs but little from wine-brandy. I redistill nearly all the spirit over a naked fire, employing for it the same proportion of animal charcoal, and convert it into alcohol of 34o (= 0.858). The sale of the alcohol is more easy and profitable than that of the spirit, as this quality of alcohol is in much request amongst the manufacturers of colors for dissolving their resins. I once thought that it would be more advantageous to leach the wash of the beets in order to mix the juice thus obtained with the molasses, and to ferment them together, but experience has undeceived me; the juice ferments, and the molasses does not then undergo decomposition; it is found in the boiler unchanged. I have found the same results to be produced when I have mixed the must of grapes with molasses. Two hundred kilogrammes (445 lbs.) yield upon distillation about 13 gallons of spirit of 22° (= 0.932); these 13 gallons produce 61 gallons of alcohol at 34°. The expenses of the operation may be calculated thus: One man, who conducts all the operations, and completes the distillation of it in one day 10 kilogrammes of rye Pit coal.... Animal charcoal Total..... .... .1 franc 50 centimes. 1 3 66 50 66 ..6 francs (81.14). The conversion of this spirit into alcohol of 34° costs as follows: From this it appears that the profits are not great, but distillation gives an actual value to molasses which is worth nothing. SIZE OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS. DOES THE SIZE OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS DETERMINE THEIR USEFULNESS? The size of domestic animals has always been considered a property worthy of notice; a certain measure in this respect has always been deemed desirable, and an animal, falling short of it, is regarded as being very defective. On the other hand, it has been admitted that excellence in size is not an absolute requisite, but may be counterbalanced by other and independent properties. Excessive size does not only not constitute real usefulness, but, in many respects, the small animals appear to be decidedly preferable, so that this question, like many others in the department of agriculture, admits of no general definite answer, but demands, in each individual case, a special, careful consideration, which, according to the species of animals, purpose for which they are used, the manner of keeping them, &c.. may induce the investigator to arrive at very different, and not unfrequently very conflicting conclusions. In modern times-in England toward the close of the last century, and in Germany still later-the breeders of cattle began conducting their business in a more rational manner than previously; and endeavored to reduce the method of procedure to certain fixed rules. It must be acknowledged that the farmer has, in a short time, accomplished much in this department of agriculture, where he found himself almost alone, receiving little aid, or in fact none at all, from science or scientific men. Put many unsolved questions yet arise, like the one now under consideration. It has often been discussed, yet no definite decision has been obtained; and even the necessary basis to crown the investigation alluded to with success, seems to be wanting. I have endeavored in the following compilation to contribute toward solving this interesting problem; but before stating the more recent observations, it seems to be proper to adduce some historical notices in regard to this subject. In ancient Greece, as Pliny tells us, the neat cattle of Epirus were highly valued on account of their large size; and in order not to interfere with their bodily development, the cows were not permitted to calve before the fourth year. Columella praises the large Simbric cxen among the races of cattle in Italy; at that time in Campania there was a smaller race, but not unfit for work; the oxen of Hetruria and Latium are described as being stout, and the cattle of the Apen nines were noted for their endurance and capacity of living on scanty food. The absolute size of these races is not stated, and we do not know what size Columella considered a medium one. If the food the animal received may serve as a basis to ascertain his standard, we may learn something more definite in this respect, for he tells us that the daily ration of a draught-ox amounted generally to 30, and during the time of plowing, to 40 Roman pounds of hay, or nearly 19 or 26 pounds. Such a ration, according to our estimate, is sufficient for a draught-ox of light medium size, having a live weight of about 900 pounds. The work performed by an ox-team at plowing* seems to have been very little, but the defective structure of the Roman plow may have caused this. The horses and cattle of the ancient Teutons appeared small and ill-looking to the Romans; yet the former preferred their domestic breeds to foreign animals, and tried to make up the defect in the size of their domestic animals by keeping a larger number of them. The buffalo which at that time existed in the forests of Germany, and which Cæsar compared to the elephant, by way of exaggeration, cannot be classed among the cattle, because it was not domesticated. I know of no statements from which inferences may be drawn as to the size of the breeds of cattle in Germany during the middle ages. The horse, which at that period was scarcely ever used for agricultural purposes, must have attained a considerable size and strength, because it was able to move with considerable fleetness, as well as endurance, under a rider in armor. In keeping cattle there appears to have been no uniformity in feeding necessary to develop them fully, and to make them useful. In more modern times even this branch of the breeding of domestic animals has been sadly neglected, and received the proper attention much later than the breeding of horses and sheep. In many districts in Europe there were seen, a comparatively short time ago, breeds of cattle which evidently were very defective from gross neglect; but it must be acknowledged that latterly great progress has been made in this respect, and the carcass size of cattle in general has been increased. In 1813 Thaer believed the live weight of a cow in Northern Germany could, on an average, not be estimated at more than 400 pounds; Pabst § states the general weight of a cow at 500 to 1800 pounds; and although it is doubtful whether he referred to German breeds in giving this maximum, yet the minimum would seem to be decisive, being still considerably more than the average live weight stated by Thaer. A breed of cattle of the desired size may be obtained by importing a foreign breed possessing this required property, multiplying it by in-and-in breeding, and using it for crossing. It may also be produced from the domestic breed by copious feeding, especially during the period of the most rapid development. A few years after he had commenced his well known experiments, Mr. v. Riedesel exhibited a cow, four years old, weighing 1773 pounds live weight, standing in his stable at *Columella 1 c, XI, 2. + Compare Tacitus, de Germania, cap. 5; and Cæsar, de Vello Gallica, IV., 2. Essay to ascertain the net profit derived from productive real estates, 50. § Advice to cattle-breeders. Stuttgart and Tuebingen, 1851; p. 18. the side of her dam, weighing 913 pounds only. The results of these experiments were not favorable in respect to the production of milk. There have been several cases in which the result was in favor of the smaller animals. On the manors of Dr. Crusius, deceased, 20 Allgau cows gave 95,912 quarts of milk in a year, while the same number of the large Berne race gave only 88,512 quarts, being, on an average, 4,794 quarts and 4,424 quarts per head, respectively. A still larger difference in favor of the smaller breed resulted from the amount of feed consumed; for the Allgau cows gave for every 100 lbs. of hay 54.7 quarts of milk, while the Berne cows gave only 43 2 quarts. It is furthermore asserted that the attempt to enlarge the rather small Angeln breed giving much milk, by crossing with cattle from the vicinity of Tondern, has not proved profitable. The result was a much larger and very well built breed of cattle, but they did not "pay" as well for pasture and feed as the Angeln race proper The "Sketches on breeding cattle, sheep and hogs in the Austrian empire,"§ contain very specific statements in regard to size. There the Hungarian cattle would seem to be the most interesting, because this race probably approximates nearest to the original type of European cattle. The finest herds of this race of cattle are found in Bihar, Arad, and the adjoining comitates, between the rivers Theisy and Marosch. The dimensions of a perfectly developed Hungarian ox, in a good, fleshy condition, are stated as follows: equal to 784 to 896 pounds, which includes the tallow. But the general average dead weight of the Hungarian oxen fattened for the market, is much less-say about 550 pounds. A cow, mentioned by Pabst as representative of the same race, showed a * Three agricultural essays, by Geo Riedesel, Baronet at Eiserbach; Anclam, 1853, p 34. The stated increase of weight in the immediate offspring was doubtless partly due to an actual enlargement of stature-of the frame and the bones, and the better keep of the heifer than the dam. Agric. Periodical, published by the Agric Society for the Kingdom of Saxony; vol I., pp. 196, &c. Martens, the Breeding of Cattle and the Dairy, &c., on the manors in the dukedoms of Schleswig and Holstein; 2d Ed., p. 10. Published by authority of I. R. Ministry of the Interior; Vienna, 1856. The Austrian foot varies so little from our own that a reduction seems unnecessary. ** Measured between the hip-bones. |
